(1)GSM security & encryption
The motivations for security in cellular telecommunications systems are to secure conversations and signaling data from interception as well as to prevent cellular telephone fraud. With the older analog-based cellular telephone systems such as the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) and the Total Access Communication System (TACS), it is a relatively simple matter for the radio hobbyist to intercept cellular telephone conversations with a police scanner. A well-publicized case involved a potentially embarrassing cellular telephone conversation with a member of the British royal family being recorded and released to the media. Another security consideration with cellular telecommunications systems involves identification credentials such as the Electronic Serial Number (ESN), which are transmitted "in the clear" in analog systems. With more complicated equipment, it is possible to receive the ESN and use it to commit cellular telephone fraud by "cloning" another cellular phone and placing calls with it. Estimates for cellular fraud in the U.S. in 1993 are as high as $500 million. The procedure wherein the Mobile Station (MS) registers its location with the system is also vulnerable to interception and permits the subscriber's location to be monitored even when a call is not in progress, as evidenced by the recent highly-publicized police pursuit of a famous U.S. athlete. The security and authentication mechanisms incorporated in GSM make it the most secure mobile communication standard currently available, particularly in comparison to the analog systems described above. Part of the enhanced security of GSM is due to the fact that it is a digital system utilizing a speech coding algorithm, Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) digital modulation, slow frequency hopping, and Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) time slot architecture. To intercept and reconstruct this signal would require more highly specialized and expensive equipment than a police scanner to perform the reception, synchronization, and decoding of the signal. In addition, the authentication and encryption capabilities discussed in this paper ensure the security of GSM cellular telephone conversations and subscriber identification credentials against even the determined eavesdropper. GSM (group special mobile or general system for mobile communications) is the Pan-European standard for digital cellular communications. The Group Special Mobile was established in 1982 within the European Conference of Post and Telecommunication Administrations (CEPT). A Further important step in the history of GSM as a standard for a digital mobile cellular communications was the signing of a GSM Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) in 1987 in which 18 nations committed themselves to implement cellular networks based on the GSM specifications. In 1991 the first GSM based networks commenced operations. GSM provides enhanced features over older analog-based systems, which are summarized below: Total Mobility: The subscriber has the advantage of a Pan-European system allowing him to communicate from everywhere and to be called in any area served by a GSM cellular network using the same assigned telephone number, even outside his home location. The calling party does not need to be informed about the called person's location because the GSM networks are responsible for the location tasks. With his personal chipcard he can use a telephone in a rental car, for example, even outside his home location. This mobility feature is preferred by many business people who constantly need to be in touch with their headquarters. High Capacity and Optimal Spectrum Allocation: The former analog-based cellular networks had to combat capacity problems, particularly in metropolitan areas. Through a more efficient utilization of the assigned frequency bandwidth and smaller cell sizes, the GSM System is capable of serving a greater number of subscribers. The optimal use of the available spectrum is achieved through the application Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), efficient half-rate and full-rate speech coding, and the Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) modulation scheme. Security: The security methods standardized for the GSM System make it the most secure cellular telecommunications standard currently available. Although the confidentiality of a call and anonymity of the GSM subscriber is only guaranteed on the radio channel, this is a major step in achieving end-to- end security. The subscriber's anonymity is ensured through the use of temporary identification numbers. The confidentiality of the communication itself on the radio link is performed by the application of encryption algorithms and frequency hopping which could only be realized using digital systems and signaling. Services: The list of services available to GSM subscribers typically includes the following: voice communication, facsimile, voice mail, short message transmission, data transmission and supplemental services such as call forwarding.
(2) Cyberterrorism
Cyberterrorism is a new terrorist tactic that makes use of information systems or digital technology, especially the Internet, as either an instrument or a target. As the Internet becomes more a way of life with us,it is becoming easier for its users to become targets of the cyberterrorists. The number of areas in which cyberterrorists could strike is frightening, to say the least. The difference between the conventional approaches of terrorism and new methods is primarily that it is possible to affect a large multitude of people with minimum resources on the terrorist's side, with no danger to him at all. We also glimpse into the reasons that caused terrorists to look towards the Web, and why the Internet is such an attractive alternative to them. The growth of Information Technology has led to the development of this dangerous web of terror, for cyberterrorists could wreak maximum havoc within a small time span. Various situations that can be viewed as acts of cyberterrorism have also been covered. Banks are the most likely places to receive threats, but it cannot be said that any establishment is beyond attack. Tips by which we can protect ourselves from cyberterrorism have also been covered which can reduce problems created by the cyberterrorist.We, as the Information Technology people of tomorrow need to study and understand the weaknesses of existing systems, and figure out ways of ensuring the world's safety from cyberterrorists. A number of issues here are ethical, in the sense that computing technology is now available to the whole world, but if this gift is used wrongly, theconsequences could be disastrous. It is important that we understand and mitigate cyberterrorism for the benefit of society, try to curtail its growth, so that we can heal the present, and live the future…
(3) Space robot
Robot is a system with a mechanical body, using computer as its brain. Integrating the sensors and actuators built into the mechanical body, the motions are realised with the computer software to execute the desired task. Robots are more flexible in terms of ability to perform new tasks or to carry out complex sequence of motion than other categories of automated manufacturing equipment. Today there is lot of interest in this field and a separate branch of technology 'robotics' has emerged. It is concerned with all problems of robot design, development and applications. The technology to substitute or subsidise the manned activities in space is called space robotics. Various applications of space robots are the inspection of a defective satellite, its repair, or the construction of a space station and supply goods to this station and its retrieval etc. With the over lap of knowledge of kinematics, dynamics and control and progress in fundamental technologies it is about to become possible to design and develop the advanced robotics systems. And this will throw open the doors to explore and experience the universe and bring countless changes for the better in the ways we live.Areas Of ApplicationThe space robot applications can be classified into the following four categories1 In-orbit positioning and assembly: For deployment of satellite and for assembly of modules to satellite/space station.2 Operation: For conducting experiments in space lab.3 Maintenance: For removal and replacement of faulty modules/packages.4 Resupply: For supply of equipment, materials for experimentation in space lab and for the resupply of fuel.The following examples give specific applications under the above categoriesScientific experimentation: Conduct experimentation in space labs that may include" Metallurgical experiments which may be hazardous." Astronomical observations." Biological experiments.Assist crew in space station assembly" Assist in deployment and assembly out side the station." Assist crew inside the space station: Routine crew functions inside the space station and maintaining life support system.
(4)Cellular digital packet data
Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) systems offer what is currently one of the most advanced means of wireless data transmission technology. Generally used as a tool for business, CDPD holds promises for improving law enforcement communications and operations. As technologies improve, CDPD may represent a major step toward making our nation a wireless information society. While CDPD technology is more complex than most of us care to understand, its potential benefits are obvious even to technological novices.In this so-called age of information, no one need to be reminded of speed but also accuracy in the storage, retrieval and transmission of data. The CDPD network is a little one year old and already is proving to be a hot digital enhancement to the existing phone network. CDPD transmits digital packet data at 19.2 Kbps, using idle times between cellular voice calls on the cellular telephone network. CDPD technology represent a way for law enforcement agencies to improve how they manage their communications and information systems. For over a decade, agencies around the world have been experimenting with placing Mobile Data Terminals(MDT) in their vehicles to enhance officer safety and efficiency.Early MDT's transmits their information using radio modems. In this case data could be lost in transmission during bad weather or when mobile units are not properly located in relation to transmission towers. More recently MDT's have transmitted data using analog cellular telephone modems. This shift represented an improvement in mobile data communications, but systems still had flaws which limited their utility.Since the mid-1990's, computer manufacturers and the telecommunication industry have been experimenting with the use of digital cellular telecommunications as a wireless means to transmit data. The result of their effort is CDPD systems. These systems allow users to transmit data with a higher degree of accuracy, few service interruptions, and strong security. In addition CDPD technology represent a way for law enforcement agencies to improve how they manage their communications and information systems. This results in the capacity for mobile users to enjoy almost instantaneous access to information.WHAT IS CDPD?CDPD is a specification for supporting wireless access to the Internet and other public packet-switched networks. Data transmitted on the CDPD systems travel several times faster than data send using analog networksCellular telephones and modem providers that offer CDPD support make it possible for mobile users to get access to the Internet at up to 19,2 Kbps. Because CDPD is an open specification that adheres to the layered structure of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, it has the ability to be extended in the future. CDPD supports both the Internet's Connectionless Network Protocol (CLNP).CDPD also supports IP multicast (one-to-many) service. With multicast, a company can periodically broadcast company updates to sales and service people on the road or a news subscription service can transmit its issues as they are published. It will also support the next level of IP, IPV6. With CDPD we are assigned our very own address. With this address, we are virtually always connected to our host without having to keep a constant connection.There are currently two methods for sending data over cellular networks: cellular digital packet data (CDPD) and cellular switched-circuit data (CSCD). Each has distinct advantages depending on the type of application, amount of data to send or receive, and geographic coverage needs.
(5) Cellonics Technology
In digital communication , CellonicsTM offers a fundamental change to the way modem solutions have traditionally been designed and built. CellonicsTM technology introduces a simple and swift Carrier - Rate DecodingTM solution to the receiving and decoding of a modulated signal. It encodes and decodes signals at one symbol per cycle-a feature not found elsewhere. Its simplicity will obsolete the super heterodyne receiver design that has been in use since its invention by Major Edward Armstrong in 1918.In fact, according to one estimate,98 % of the worlds radio systems are still based on this superhet design.Cellonics Inc. has invented and patented a number of circuits that mimic the above biological cell behavior. The CellonicsTM circuits are incredibly simple with advantages of low-cost, low power consumption and smallness of size. When applied in communication, the CellonicsTM technology is a fundamental modulation and demodulation technique. The CellonicsTM receivers are used as devices that generate pulses from the received analog signal and perform demodulation based on pulse countingBirth Of CellonicsFor the last 60 years, the way radio receivers are designed and built has undergone amazingly little change. Much of the current approach could be attributed to EH Armstrong, the oft -credited Father of FM, who invented the super heterodyne method in 1918.He further developed it into a complete FM commercial system in 1933 for use in public-radio broadcasting. Today, more than 98% of receivers in radios, television and mobile phones use this method.The subsystem used in the superhet design consists of radio-frequency (RF)amplifiers mixers ,phase-lock loops ,filters, oscillators and other components ,which are all complex ,noisy ,and power hungry. Capturing a communications element from the air to retrieve its modulated signal is not easy ,and a system often needs to spend thousands of carrier cycles to recover just one bit of information .This process of demodulation is inefficient ,and newly emerging schemes result in complex chips difficult and expensive to manufacture.So it was necessary to invent a new demodulation circuit ,which do the job of conventional superheterodyne receiver but at afar lesser component count, faster and lower in power consumption and possessing greater signal robustness These requirements were met by designing a circuit which models the biological cell behavior as explained earlier. The technology for this, named CELLONICS ,was invented by scientists from CWC(Center for Wireless communication) and Computational Science Department in Singapore.Principles Of The TechnologyThe Cellonics technology is a revolutionary and unconventional approach based on the theory of nonlinear dynamical systems and modeled after biological cell behavior. When used in the field of communication, the technology has the ability to encode, transmit and decode digital information powerfully over a variety of physical channels, be they cables or wirelessly through air.
(6)Molecular Electronics
Will silicon technology become obsolete in future like the value technology done about 50 years ago? Scientists and technologists working in anew field of electronics, known as molecular electronics is a relatively new field, which emerged as an important area of research only in the 1980's. It was through the efforts of late professor Carter of the U.S.A that the field was born.Conventional electronics technology is much indebted to the integrated circuit (IC) technology. IC technology is one of the important aspects that brought about a revolution in electronics. With the gradual increased scale of integration, electronics age has passed through SSI (small scale integration), MSI (medium scale integration), LSI (large scale integration), and ULSI (ultra large scale integration). These may be respectively classified as integration technology with 1-12 gates, 12-30 gates, 30-300 gates, 300-10000 gates, and beyond 10000 gates on a single chip.The density of IC technology is increasing in pace with Famous Moore's law of 1965. Till date Moore's law about the doubling of the number of components in an I.C every year holds good. He wrote in his original paper entitled 'Cramming More Components Onto Integrated Circuit ', that, "the complexity for minimum component costs has increased at the rate of roughly a factor of 2 per year. Certainly, over the short term, this rate can be expected to continue, if not to increase. Over the longer term, the rate of increase is a bit more uncertain, although there is no reason to believe that it will not remain constant for at least ten more years.It is now over 30 years since Moore talked of this so called technology-mantra. It is found that I.C's are following his law and there is a prediction that Moore's law shall remain valid till 2010.the prediction was based on a survey of industries and is believed to be correct with research of properties of semiconductors and production processes. But beyond ULSI, a new technology may become competitive to semiconductor technology. This new technology is known as Molecular electronics. Semiconductor integration beyond ULSI, through conventional electronic technology is facing problems with fundamental physical limitations like quantum effects etc. Molecular based electronics can overcome the fundamental physical and economic issues limiting Silicon Technology.For a scaling technology beyond ULSI, prof. Forest Carter put forward a novel idea. In digital electronics, 'YES' and 'NO' states are usually and respectively implemented and/or defined by 'ON' and 'OFF' conditions of a switching transistor. Prof. Carter postulated that instead using a transistor; a molecule (a single molecule or a small aggregate of molecule) might be used to represent the two states, namely YES & NO of digital electronics.For e.g. one can use positive spin & negative spin of a molecule to represent respectively 'YES' & 'NO' states of binary logic. As in the new concept a molecule rather than a transistor is proposed to be used, the scaling technology may go to molecular scale. It is therefore defined as MSE (molecular scale electronics). MSE is far beyond the ULSI technology in terms of scaling. In order to augment his postulation Prof. Carter conducted a number of international conferences on the subject. The outcome of these conferences has been to establish the field of molecular electronics.
(7)Animatronics
The first use of Audio-Animatronics was for Walt Disney's Enchanted Tiki Room in Disneyland, which opened in June, 1963. The Tiki birds were operated using digital controls; that is, something that is either on or off. Tones were recorded onto tape, which on playback would cause a metal reed to vibrate. The vibrating reed would close a circuit and thus operate a relay. The relay sent a pulse of energy (electricity) to the figure's mechanism which would cause a pneumatic valve to operate, which resulted in the action, like the opening of a bird's beak. Each action (e.g., opening of the mouth) had a neutral position, otherwise known as the "natural resting position" (e.g., in the case of the Tiki bird it would be for the mouth to be closed). When there was no pulse of energy forthcoming, the action would be in, or return to, the natural resting position. This digital/tone-reed system used pneumatic valves exclusively--that is, everything was operated by air pressure. Audio-Animatronics' movements that were operated with this system had two limitations. First, the movement had to be simple--on or off. (e.g., The open and shut beak of a Tiki bird or the blink of an eye, as compared to the many different positions of raising and lowering an arm.) Second, the movements couldn't require much force or power. (e.g., The energy needed to open a Tiki Bird's beak could easily be obtained by using air pressure, but in the case of lifting an arm, the pneumatic system didn't provide enough power to accomplish the lift.) Walt and WED knew that this this pneumatic system could not sufficiently handle the more complicated shows of the World's Fair. A new system was devised. In addition to the digital programming of the Tiki show, the Fair shows required analog programming. This new "analog system" involved the use of voltage regulation. The tone would be on constantly throughout the show, and the voltage would be varied to create the movement of the figure. This "varied voltage" signal was sent to what was referred to as the "black box." The black boxes had the electronic equipment that would receive the signal and then activate the pneumatic and hydraulic valves that moved the performing figures. The use of hydraulics allowed for a substantial increase in power, which was needed for the more unwieldy and demanding movements. (Hydraulics were used exclusively with the analog system, and pneumatics were used only with the tone-reed/digital system.) There were two basic ways of programming a figure. The first used two different methods of controlling the voltage regulation. One was a joystick-like device called a transducer, and the other device was a potentiometer (an instrument for measuring an unknown voltage or potential difference by comparison to a standard voltage--like the volume control knob on a radio or television receiver). If this method was used, when a figure was ready to be programmed, each individual action--one at a time-- would be refined, rehearsed, and then recorded. For instance, the programmer, through the use of the potentiometer or transducer, would repeatedly rehearse the gesture of lifting the arm, until it was ready for a "take."
(8)Extreme ultraviolet Lithography
Silicon has been the heart of the world's technology boom for nearly half a century, but microprocessor manufacturers have all but squeezed the life out of it. The current technology used to make microprocessors will begin to reach its limit around 2005. At that time, chipmakers will have to look to other technologies to cram more transistors onto silicon to create more powerful chips. Many are already looking at extreme-ultraviolet lithography (EUVL) as a way to extend the life of silicon at least until the end of the decade. Potential successors to optical projection lithography are being aggressively developed. These are known as "Next-Generation Lithographies" (NGL's). EUV lithography (EUVL) is one of the leading NGL technologies; others include x-ray lithography, ion-beam projection lithography, and electron-beam projection lithography. Using extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) light to carve transistors in silicon wafers will lead to microprocessors that are up to 100 times faster than today's most powerful chips, and to memory chips with similar increases in storage capacity. Extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL) is an advanced technology for making microprocessors a hundred times more powerful than those made today.EUVL is one technology vying to replace the optical lithography used to make today's microcircuits. It works by burning intense beams of ultraviolet light that are reflected from a circuit design pattern into a silicon wafer. EUVL is similar to optical lithography in which light is refracted through camera lenses onto the wafer. However, extreme ultraviolet light, operating at a different wavelength, has different properties and must be reflected from mirrors rather than refracted through lenses. The challenge is to build mirrors perfect enough to reflect the light with sufficient precisionEUV RADIATIONWe know that Ultraviolet radiations are very shortwave (very low wavelength) with high energy. If we further reduce the wavelength it becomes Extreme Ultraviolet radiation. Current lithography techniques have been pushed just about as far as they can go. They use light in the deep ultraviolet range- at about 248-nanometer wavelengths-to print 150- to 120-nanometer-size features on a chip. (A nanometer is a billionth of a meter.) In the next half dozen years, manufacturers plan to make chips with features measuring from 100 to 70 nanometers, using deep ultraviolet light of 193- and 157-nanometer wavelengths. Beyond that point, smaller features require wavelengths in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) range. Light at these wavelengths is absorbed instead of transmitted by conventional lensesLithographyComputers have become much more compact and increasingly powerful largely because of lithography, a basically photographic process that allows more and more features to be crammed onto a computer chip. Lithography is akin to photography in that it uses light to transfer images onto a substrate. Light is directed onto a mask-a sort of stencil of an integrated circuit pattern-and the image of that pattern is then projected onto a semiconductor wafer covered with light-sensitive photoresist. Creating circuits with smaller and smaller features has required using shorter and shorter wavelengths of light.
(9)Bioinformatics
Rapid advances in bioinformatics are providing new hopes to patients of life threatening diseases. Gene chips will be able to screen heart attack and diabetics years before patients develop symptoms. In near future, patients will go to a doctor's clinic with lab- on- a- chip devices. The device will inform the doctor in real time if the patient's ailment will respond to a drug based on his DNA. These will help doctors diagnose life-threatening illness faster, eliminating expensive, time-consuming ordeals like biopsies and sigmoidoscopies. Gene chips reclassify diseases based on their underlying molecular signals, rather than misleading surface symptoms. The chip would also confirm the patient's identity and even establish paternity. Bioinformatics is an inter disciplinary research area. It is a fusion of computing, biotechnology and biological sciences. Bioinformatics is poised to one of the most prodigious growth areas in the next to decades. Being the interface between the most rapidly advancing fields of biological and computational sciences, it is immense in scope and vast in applications.Bioinformatics is the study of biological information as it passes from its storage site in the genome to the various gene products in the cell. Bioinformatics involves the creation and computational technologies for problems in molecular biology. As such ,it deals with methods for storing, retrieving and analyzing biological data, such as nuclei acid (DNA/RNA)and protein sequence, structures, functions, path ways and interactions. The science of Bioinformatics, which is the melding of molecular biology with computer science is essential to the use of genomic information in understanding human diseases and in the identification of new molecular targets of drug discovery. New discoveries are being made in the field of genomics, an area of study which looks at the DNA sequence of an organism in order to determine which genes code for beneficial traits and which genes are involved in inherited diseases.If you are not tall enough, the stature could be altered accordingly. If you are weak and not strong enough, your physique could be improved. If you think this is the script for a science fiction movie, you are mistaken. It is the future reality.Evolution Of BioinformaticsDNA is the genetic material of organism. It contains all the information needed for the development and existence of an organism. The DNA molecule is formed of two long polynucleotide chains which are spirally coiled on each other forming a double helix. Thus it has the form of spirally twisted ladder. DNA is a molecule made from sugar, phosphate and bases. The bases are guanine (G), cytosine(C)adenine(A) and thiamine(T).Adenine pairs only with Thiamine and Guanine pairs only with Cytosine. The various combinations of these bases make up with DNA. That is; AAGCT, CCAGT, TACGGT etc. An infinite number of combinations of these bases is possible. And then the gene is a sequence of DNA that represents a fundamental unit of heredity. Human genome consists of approximately 30,000 genes, containing approximately 3 billion base pairs.
(10) wideband sigma delta PLL modulator
The proliferation of wireless products over past few years has been rapidly increasing. New wireless standards such as GPRS and HSCSD have brought new challenges to wireless transceiver design. One pivotal component of transceiver is frequency synthesizer.Two major requirements in mobile applications are efficient utilization of frequency spectrum by narrowing the channel spacing and fast switching for high data rates. This can be achieved by using fractional- N PLL architecture. They are capable of synthesizing frequencies at channel spacings less than reference frequency. This will increase the reference frequency and also reduces the PLL's lock time.Fractional N PLL has the disadvantage that it generates high tones at multiple of channel spacing. Using digital sigma delta modulation techniques. we can randomize the frequency division ratio so that quantization noise of the divider can be transferred to high frequencies thereby eliminatory the spurs.Conventional PLLThe advantages of this conventional PLL modulator is that they offer small frequency resolution, wider tuning bandwidth and fast switching speed. But they have insufficient bandwidth for current wireless standards such as GSM. so that they cannot be used as a closed loop modulator for digital enhanced codeless (DECT) standard. they efficiently filter out quantization noise and reference feed through for sufficiently small loop bandwidth.Wide Band PLLFor wider loop band width applications bandwidth is increased. but this will results in residual spurs to occur. this due to the fact that the requirement of the quantization noise to be uniformly distributed is violated. since we are using techniques for frequency synthesis the I/P to the modulator is dc I/P which will results in producing tones even when higher order modulators are used. with single bit O/P level of quantization noise is less but with multi bit O/P s quantization noise increases. So the range of stability of modulator is reduced which will results in reduction of tuning range. More over the hardware complexity of the modulator is higher than Mash modulator. In this feed back feed forward modulator the loop band width was limited to nearly three orders of magnitudes less than the reference frequency. So if it is to be used as a closed loop modulator power dissipation will increase.So in order to widen the loop band width the close-in-phase noise must be kept within tolerable levels and also the rise of the quantization noise must be limited to meet high frequency offset phase noise requirements. At low frequencies or dc the modulator transfer function has a zero which will results in addition of phase noise. For that the zero is moved away from dc to a frequency equal to some multiple of fractional division ratio. This will introduce a notch at that frequency which will reduce the total quantization noise. Now the quantization noise of modified modulator is 1.7 times and 4.25 times smaller than Mash modulator.At higher frequencies quantization noise cause distortion in the response. This is because the step size of multi bit modulator is same as single bit modulator. So more phase distortion will be occurring in multi bit PLLs. To reduce quantization noise at high frequencies the step size is reduced by producing functional division ratios. This is achieved by using a phase selection divider instead of control logic in conventional modulator. This divider will produce phase shifts of VCO signal and changes the division ratio by selecting different phases from the VCO. This type of divider will produce quarter division ratios.
(11)Lightning protection using LFAM
A new simple, effective and inexpensive method for lightning protection of medium voltage overhead distribution line is using long flashover arresters (LFA). A new long flashover arrester model has been developed. It is designated as LFA-M. It offers great number of technical and economical advantages. The important feature of this modular long flashover arrester (LFA-M) is that it can be applied for lightning protection of overhead distribution line against both induced overvoltages and direct lightning strokes. The induced over voltages can be counteracted by installing a single arrester on an overhead line support (pole). For the protection of lines against direct lightning strokes, the arresters are connected between the poles and all of the phase conductors in parallel with the insulators.Lightning is an electrical discharge between cloud and the earth, between clouds or between the charge centers of the same cloud. Lightning is a huge spark and that take place when clouds are charged to at a high potential with respect to earth object (e.g. overhead lines) or neighboring cloud that the dielectric strength of the neighboring medium(air) is destroyed.TYPES OF LIGHTNING STROKESThere are two main ways in which the lightning may strike the power system . They are1. Direct stroke2. Indirect strokeDirect StrokeIn direct stroke, the lightning discharge is directly from the cloud to the an overhead line. From the line, current path may be over the insulators down to the pole to the ground. The over voltage set up due to the stroke may be large enough to flashover this path directly to the ground. The direct stroke can be of two types1. stroke A2. stroke BIn stroke A, the lightning discharge is from the cloud to the subject equipment(e.g. overhead lines). The cloud will induce a charge of opposite sign on the tall object. When the potential between the cloud and line exceed the breakdown value of air, the lightning discharge occurs between the cloud and the line.In stroke B the lightning discharge occurs on the overhead line as the result of stroke A between the clouds. There are three clouds P,Q and R having positive, negative and positive charge respectively. Charge on the cloud Q is bound by cloud R.If the cloud P shift too nearer to cloud Q,Then lightning discharge will occur between them and charges on both these cloud disappear quickly. The result is that charge on cloud R suddenly become free and it then discharges rapidly to earth, ignoring tall object.
(12)Power System Contingencies
Power system voltage control has a hierarchy structure with three levels: the primary, secondary, and the tertiary voltage control. Over the past 20 yrs, one of the most successful measures proposed to improve power system voltage regulation has been the application of secondary voltage control, initiated by the French electricity company, EDF, and followed by some other electricity utilities in European countries. The secondary voltage control closes the control loop of the references value setting of controllers at the primary level. The primary objective of secondary voltage control is to achieve better voltage regulation in power systems. In addition, it brings in the extra benefit of improvement of power system voltage stability, for this application, several methods to design secondary voltage controllers have been proposed.The useful concept of secondary voltage control is explored for a new application-the elimination of the voltage violations in power system contingencies. For this particular application, the coordination of various secondary voltage controllers is proposed to be based on a multi agent request -and- answer type of protocol to between any two agents. The resulted secondary voltage control can only cover the location where voltage controllers are installed. This paper presents results of significant progresses in investigating this new application to eliminate voltage violations in power system contingencies via secondary voltage control.A collaboration protocol, expressed graphically as finite state machine, is proposed for the coordination among multiple FACTS voltage controllers. The coordinated secondary voltage control is suggested to cover multiple locations to eliminate voltage violations in the adjacent locations to a voltage controller. A novel scheme of a learning fuzzy logic control is proposed for the design of the secondary voltage controller. A key parameter of the learning fuzzy logic controller is proposed to be trained through off-line simulation with the injection of artificial loads in the controller's adjacent locations.FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems)Sudden changes in the power demands or changes in the system conditions in the power system are often followed by prolonged electromechanical oscillations leading to power system instability. AC transmission lines are dominantly reactive networks characterized by their per mile series inductance and shunt capacitances. Suitably changing the line impedance and thus the real and reactive power flow through the transmission line is an effective measure for controlling the power system oscillations and thereby improving the system stability.Advances in high power semiconductors and sophisticated electronic control technologies have led to the development of FACTS. Through FACTS the effective line impedance can be controlled within a few milliseconds time. Damping of the power system oscillation is possible through effective changes in the line impedance by employing FACTS members (SVC, STATCOM, UPFC etc).
(13) Buffer Overflow attack
By combining the C programming language's liberal approach to memory handling with specific Linux filesystem permissions, this operating system can be manipulated to grant unrestricted privilege to unprivileged accounts or users. A variety of exploit that relies upon these two factors is commonly known as a buffer overflow, or stack smashing vulnerability. Stack smashing plays an important role in high profile computer security incidents. In order to secure modern Linux systems, it is necessary to understand why stack smashing occurs and what one can do to prevent it.Pre-requisitesTo understand what goes on, some C and assembly knowledge is required. Virtual Memory, some Operating Systems essentials, like, for example, how a process is laid out in memory will be helpful. You MUST know what a setuid binary is, and of course you need to be able to -at least- use Linux systems. If you have an experince of gdb/cc, that is something really good. Document is Linux/ix86 specific. The details differ depending on the Operating System or architecture you're using. Here, I have tried out some small buffer overflows that can be easily grasped. The pre-requisites described above are explained is some detail below.Linux File System PermissionsIn order to better understand stack smashing vulnerabilities, it is first nec-essary to understand certain features of filesystem permissions in the Linux operating system. Privileges in the Linux operating system are invested solely in the user root, sometimes called the superuser, root's infallibility is ex-pected under every condition including program execution. The superuser is the main security weakness in the Linux operating system. Because the superuser can do anything, after a person gains superuser privileges for ex-ample, by learning the root password and logging in as root that person can do virtually anything to the system. This explains why most attackers who break into Linux systems try to become superusers. Each program (process) started by the root user inherits the root user's allinclusive privilege. In most cases the inherited privilege is subsequently passed to other programs spawned by root's running processes. Set UID (SUID) permissions in the Linux operating system grant a user privilege to run programs or shell scripts as another user.Linux operating system, the process in memory that handles the program execution is usually owned by the user who executed the program. Using a unique permission bit to indicate SUID, the filesystem indicates to the op-erating system that the program will run under the file owner's ID rather than the user's ID who executed the program. Often times SUID programs are owned by root; while these programs may be executable by an under-privileged user on the system, they run in memory with unrestricted access to the system. As one can see, SUID root permissions are used to grant an unprivileged user temporary, and necessary, use of privileged resources. Many Linux programs need to run with superuser privileges. These pro-grams are run as SUID root programs, when the system boots, or as network servers. A single bug in any of these complicated programs can compromise the safety of your entire system. This characteristic is probably a design flaw, but it is basic to the design of Linux, and it not likely to change. Exploitation of this "feature turned design flaw" is critical in constructing buffer overflow exploits.
(14) Mobile IP
While Internet technologies largely succeed in overcoming the barriers of time and distance, existing Internet technologies have yet to fully accommodate the increasing mobile computer usage. A promising technology used to eliminate this current barrier is Mobile IP. The emerging 3G mobile networks are set to make a huge difference to the international business community. 3G networks will provide sufficient bandwidth to run most of the business computer applications while still providing a reasonable user experience. However, 3G networks are not based on only one standard, but a set of radio technology standards such as cdma2000, EDGE and WCDMA. It is easy to foresee that the mobile user from time to time also would like to connect to fixed broadband networks, wireless LANs and, mixtures of new technologies such as Bluetooth associated to e.g. cable TV and DSL access points.In this light, a common macro mobility management framework is required in order to allow mobile users to roam between different access networks with little or no manual intervention. (Micro mobility issues such as radio specific mobility enhancements are supposed to be handled within the specific radio technology.) IETF has created the Mobile IP standard for this purpose.Mobile IP is different compared to other efforts for doing mobility management in the sense that it is not tied to one specific access technology. In earlier mobile cellular standards, such as GSM, the radio resource and mobility management was integrated vertically into one system. The same is also true for mobile packet data standards such as CDPD, Cellular Digital Packet Data and the internal packet data mobility protocol (GTP/MAP) of GPRS/UMTS networks. This vertical mobility management property is also inherent for the increasingly popular 802.11 Wireless LAN standard.Mobile IP can be seen as the least common mobility denominator - providing seamless macro mobility solutions among the diversity of accesses. Mobile IP is defining a Home Agent as an anchor point with which the mobile client always has a relationship, and a Foreign Agent, which acts as the local tunnel-endpoint at the access network where the mobile client is visiting. Depending on which network the mobile client is currently visiting; its point of attachment Foreign Agent) may change. At each point of attachment, Mobile IP either requires the availability of a standalone Foreign Agent or the usage of a Co-located care-of address in the mobile client itself.The concept of "Mobility" or "packet data mobility", means different things depending on what context the word is used within. In a wireless or fixed environment, there are many different ways of implementing partial or full mobility and roaming services. The most common ways of implementing mobility (discrete mobility or IP roaming service) support in today's IP networking environments includes simple "PPP dial-up" as well as company internal mobility solutions implemented by means of renewal of IP address at each new point of attachment. The most commonly deployed way of supporting remote access users in today's Internet is to utilize the public telephone network (fixed or mobile) and to use the PPP dial-up functionality.
(15) Sensotronic brake control
Sensotronic Brake Control (SBC™) works electronically, and thus faster and more precisely, than a conventional hydraulic braking system. As soon as you press the brake pedal and the sensors identify the driving situation in hand, the computer makes an exact calculation of the brake force necessary and distributes it between the wheels as required. This allows SBC™ to critically reduce stopping distances. SBC™ also helps to optimise safety functions such as ESP®, ASR, ABS and BAS.With Sensotronic Brake Control, electric impulses are used to pass the driver's braking commands onto a microcomputer which processes various sensor signals simultaneously and, depending on the particular driving situation, calculates the optimum brake pressure for each wheel. As a result, SBC offers even greater active safety than conventional brake systems when braking in a corner or on a slippery surface. A high-pressure reservoir and electronically controllable valves ensure that maximum brake pressure is available much sooner. Moreover, the system offers innovative additional functions to reduce the driver's workload. These include Traffic Jam Assist, which brakes the vehicle automatically in stop-and-go traffic once the driver takes his or her foot off the accelerator. The Soft-Stop function - another first - allows particularly soft and smooth stopping in town trafficWhen drivers hit the brake pedal today, their foot moves a piston rod which is linked to the brake booster and the master brake cylinder. Depending on the pedal force, the master brake cylinder builds up the appropriate amount of pressure in the brake lines which - in a tried and tested interaction of mechanics and hydraulics - then presses the brake pads against the brake discs via the wheel cylinders.By contrast, in the Mercedes-Benz Sensotronic Brake Control, a large number of mechanical components are simply replaced by electronics. The brake booster will not be needed in future either. Instead sensors gauge the pressure inside the master brake cylinder as well as the speed with which the brake pedal is operated, and pass these data to the SBC computer in the form of electric impulses. To provide the driver with the familiar brake feel, engineers have developed a special simulator which is linked to the tandem master cylinder and which moves the pedal using spring force and hydraulics.In other words: during braking, the actuation unit is completely disconnected from the rest of the system and serves the sole purpose of recording any given brake command. Only in the event of a major fault or power failure does SBC automatically use the services of the tandem master cylinder and instantly establishes a direct hydraulic link between the brake pedal and the front wheel brakes in order to decelerate the car safely.The central control unit under the bonnet is the centrepiece of the electrohydraulic brake. This is where the interdisciplinary interaction of mechanics and electronics provides its greatest benefits - the microcomputer, software, sensors, valves and electric pump work together and allow totally novel, highly dynamic brake management:In addition to the data relating to the brake pedal actuation, the SBC computer also receives the sensor signals from the other electronic assistance systems.For example, the anti-lock braking system (ABS) provides information about wheel speed, while Electronic Stability Program (ESP®) makes available the data from its steering angle, turning rate and transverse acceleration sensors. The transmission control unit finally uses the data highway to communicate the current driving range. The result of these highly complex calculations is rapid brake commands which ensure optimum deceleration and driving stability as appropriate to the particular driving scenario. What makes the system even more sophisticated is the fact that SBC calculates the brake force separately for each wheel.
(16) Adaptive active phased array radar
Adaptive active phased array radars are seen as the vehicle to address the current requirements for true ‘multifunction’ radars systems. Their ability to adapt to the enviournment and schedule their tasks in real time allows them to operate with performance levels well above those that can be achieved from the conventional radars.
Their ability to make effective use of all the available RF power and to minimize RF losses also makes them a good candidate for future very long range radars. The AAPAR can provide many benefit in meeting the performance that will be required by tommorow's radar systems. In some cases it will be the only possible solution.
It provides the radar system designer with an almost infinte range of possibilites. This flexibility, however, needs to be treated with caution: the complexity of the system must not be allowed to grow such that it becomes uncontolled and unstable. The AAPAR breaks down the conventional walls between the traditional systems elements- antenna, transmitter, receiver etc-such that the AAPAR design must be treated holistically.
Strict requirements on the integrity of the system must be enforced. Rigourous techiues must be used to ensure that the overall flow down of requirements from top level is achieved and that testeability of the requirements can be demonstrated under both quiescent and adaptive condition.
(17)Magnetic amplifiers
A magnetic amplifier is a device which controls the power delivered from an a.c. source by employing a controllable non linear reactive elements or circuit generally interposed in series with the load. The power required to control the reactive element or circuit is made for less than the amount of power controlled; and hence power amplification is achieved. The non-linear reactive element is a saturable reactor. When used in a combination with a set of high-grade rectifiers, it exhibits power amplification properties in the sense that small changes in control power result in considerable changes in output power. The basic component of a magnetic amplifier, as mentioned above, is the saturable reactor. It consists of a laminated core of some magnetic material. The hysteresis loop of the reactor core is a narrow and steep one. A schematic diagram of a simple saturable core reactor with control winding and a.c. winding wound on two limbs. The control winding having a number of turns, Na.c. is fed with d.c. supply. By varying the control current, it is possible to largely vary the degree of saturation of the core. The other winding, called the a.c. winding or gate winding having a number of turns, Na.c. is fed from an a.c. source, the load being connected in series with it.
The property of the reactor which makes it behave as a power amplifier is its ability to change the degree of saturation of the core when the control winding mmf (magneto motive force i.e., ampere turns), established by d.c. excitation, is changed. The a.c. power supply will have high impedance if the core is unsaturated and the varying values of lower impedances as the core is increasingly saturated. When the core is completely saturated, the impedance of the a.c. winding becomes negligibly small and the full a.c. voltage appears across the load. Small values of current through the control winding, which has a large number of turns, will determine the degree of saturation of the core and hence change the impedance of the output circuit and control the flow of current through the load. By making the ratio of control winding turns to the a.c. winding turns large, an extremely high value of output current can be controlled by a very small amount of control current, The saturable core reactor circuit shown in Fig. has certain serious disadvantages. The core gets partially desaturated in the half-cycle in which the a.c. winding mmf opposes the control winding mmf. This difficulty is overcome by employing a rectifier in the output circuit as shown in Fig. Here the desaturating (damagnetising) effect by the half-cycle of the output current is blocked by the rectifier. On the other hand, the output and control winding mmfs aid each other to effect saturation in the half-cycle in which current passes through the load, thus making the reactor a self-saturating magnetic amplifier. Another difficulty that is experienced is that a high voltage is induced in the control winding due to transformer action. In order that this voltage is unable to send current to the d.c. circuit a high inductance should be connected in series with the control winding. This, however, slows down the response of the control system and hence the overall system. The saturable core is generally made of a saturable ferromagnetic material. For magnetic amplifiers of lower ratings usual transformer type construction using silicon steel (3 to 3.5 per cent Si) is used. Use of high quality nickel-iron alloy materials, however , makes possible much higher performance amplifiers of smaller size and weight. In order to realize the advantages of these materials, use is made of toroidal core configuration.
(18) Electrical Impedance Tomography Or EIT
To begin with, the word tomography can be explained with reference to ‘tomo’ and ‘graphy’; ‘tomo’ originates from the Greek word ‘tomos’ which means section or slice, and ‘graphy’ refers to representation. Hence tomography refers to any method which involves reconstruction of the internal structural information within an object mathematically from a series of projections.
The projection here is the visual information probed using an emanation which are physical processes involved. These include physical processes such as radiation, wave motion, static field, electric current etc. which are used to study an object from outside.Medical tomography primarily uses X-ray absorption, magnetic resonance, positron emission, and sound waves (ultrasound) as the emanation. Nonmedical area of application and research use ultrasound and many different frequencies of electromagnetic spectrum such as microwaves, gamma rays etc. for probing the visual information.
Besides photons, tomography is regularly performed using electrons and neutrons. In addition to absorption of the particles or radiation, tomography can be based on the scattering or emission of radiation or even using electric current as well.When electric current is consecutively fed through different available electrode pairs and the corresponding voltage, measured consecutively by all remaining electrode pairs, it is possible to create an image of the impedance of different regions of the volume conductor by using certain reconstruction algorithms. This imaging method is called impedance imaging.
Because the image is usually constructed in two dimensions from a slice of the volume conductor, the method is also called impedance tomography and ECCT (electric current computed tomography), or simply, electrical impedance tomography or EIT.Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT) is an imaging technology that applies time-varying currents to the surface of a body and records the resulting voltages in order to reconstruct and display the electrical conductivity and permittivity in the interior of the body. This technique exploits the electrical properties of tissues such as resistance and capacitance. It aims at exploiting the differences in the passive electrical properties of tissues in order to generate a tomographic image.Human tissue is not simply conductive. There is evidence that many tissues also demonstrate a capacitive component of current flow, and therefore, it is appropriate to speak of the specific admittance (admittivity) or specific impedance (impedivity) of tissue rather than the conductivity; hence, electric impedance tomography. Thus, EIT is an imaging method which maybe used to complement X-ray tomography (computer tomography, CT), ultrasound imaging, positron emission tomography (PET), and others.
(19) Illumination With Solid State Lighting
A Light emitting diodes (LEDs) have gained broad recognition as the ubiquitous little lights that tell us that our monitors are on, the phone is off the hook or the oven is hot semiconductor.
The basic principle behind the emission of light is that: When charge carrier pairs recombine in a semiconductor with an appropriate energy band-gap generates light. In a forward biased diode, little recombination occurs in the depletion layer. Most occurs in a few microns of either P- region or N –region, depending on which one is lightly doped.
LEDs produce narrow band radiations, with wave length determined by energy band of the semiconductor. Solid state electronics have replaced their vacuum tube predecessors for almost five decades. However in the next decade they will be brighter, more efficient and inexpensive enough to replace conventional lighting sources (i.e. incandescent bulbs, fluorescent tubes).
Recent development in AlGaP and AlInGaP blue and green semiconductor growth technology have enabled applications where several single to several millions of these indicator LEDs can be packed together to be used in full color signs, automotive tail lambs, traffic lights etc. still the preponderance of applications require that the viewer has to look directly into the LED. This is not “SOLID STATE LIGHTING” Artificial lighting sources share three common characteristics: -They are rarely viewed directly: light from sources are viewed as reflection off the illuminated object. - The unit of measure is kilo lumen or higher not mille lumen or lumen as it is incase of LEDs -Lighting sources are pre dominantly white with CIE color coordinates, producing excellent color rendering Today there is no such commercially using “SOLID STATE LAMP” However high power LED sources are being developed, which will evolve into lighting sources
(20) Surface Mount Technology
Surface mount technology is an easiest and prefect form of mounting components in Printed Circuit Boards. It entails making reliable interconnections on the board at great speeds, at reduced cost. To achieve these, SMT needed new types of surface mount components, new testing techniques, new assembling technique, new mounting techniques and a new set of design guidelines.
SMT is completely different from insertion mounting. The difference depends on the availability and cost of surface mounting elements. Thus the designer has no choice other than mixing the through hole and surface mount elements. At every step the surface mount technology calls for automation with intelligence.
Electronic products are becoming miniature with improvements in integration and interconnection on the chip itself, and device – to – device (D–to–D) interconnections. Surface Mount Technology (SMT) is a significant contributor to D–to–D interconnection costs.
In SMT, the following are important
1. D-to-D interconnection costs.
2. Signal integrity and operating speeds.
3. Device- to-substrate interconnection methods.
4. Thermal management of the assembled package.
D-to-D interconnection costs have not decreased as much as that of the ICs. A computer-on-a-chip costs less than the surrounding component interconnections. The problem of propagation delay, which is effectively solved at the device level, resurfaces as interconnections between the devices are made.
The modified new IC packages, having greater integration of functions, less in size and weight, and smaller in lead pitch, dictate newer methods of design, handling, assembly and repair. This has given new directions to design and process approaches, which are addresses by SMT.Currently, D-to-D interconnections at the board level are based on ‘soldering’-the method of joining the discrete components.
The leads of the components are inserted in the holes drilled as per the footprint, and soldered.In the early decades, manual skills were used to accomplish insertion as well as soldering, as the component sizes were big enough to be handled conveniently. There have been tremendous efforts to automate the method of insertion of component leads to their corresponding holes, and solder them en-mass. The leads always posed problems for auto-insertion. The tendency of Americans against using manual, skilled labour resulted in the emergence of SMT, which inherits with it automation as precondition for success.
(21) Tri-Gate Transistor
Transistors are the microscopic, silicon-based switches that process the ones and zeros of the digital worlds and are the fundamental building block of all semiconductor chips. With traditional planar transistors, electronic signals travel as if on a flat, one-way road. This approach has served the semiconductor industry well since the 1960s. But, as transistors shrink to less than 30 nanometers (billionths of a meter), the increase in current leakage means that transistors require increasingly more power to function correctly, which generates unacceptable levels of heat.
Intel's tri-gate transistor employs a novel 3-D structure, like a raised, flat plateau with vertical sides, which allows electronic signals to be sent along the top of the transistor and along both vertical sidewalls as well. This effectively triples the area available for electrical signals to travel, like turning a one-lane road into a three-lane highway, but without taking up more space. Besides operating more efficiently at nanometer-sized geometries, the tri-gate transistor runs faster, delivering 20 percent more drive current than a planar design of comparable gate size.
The tri-gate structure is a promising approach for extending the TeraHertz transistor architecture Intel announced in December 2001. The tri-gate is built on an ultra-thin layer of fully depleted silicon for reduced current leakage. This allows the transistor to turn on and off faster, while dramatically reducing power consumption. It also incorporates a raised source and drain structure for low resistance, which allows the transistor to be driven with less power. The design is also compatible with the future introduction of a high K gate dielectric for even lower leakage.Intel researchers have developed "tri-gate" transistor design. This is one of the major breakthroughs in the VLSI technology. The transistor is aimed at bringing down the transistor size in accordance with the Moore’s Law. The various problems transistors with very small size face have to be overcome. A reduction in power dissipation is another aim. This is to develop low power micro processors and flash memories. Tri-gate transistors show excellent DIBL, high sub threshold slope, high drive and much better short channel performance compared to CMOS bulk transistor. The drive current is almost increased by 30%. The thickness requirement of the Si layer is also relaxed by about 2-3 times that of a CMOS bulk transistor.Tri- gate transistors are expected to replace the nanometer transistors in the Intel microprocessors by 2010. 60 nm tri-gate transistors are already fabricated and 40 nm tri-gate transistors are under fabrication. Tri-gate transistor is going to play an important role in decreasing the power requirements of the future processors. It will also help to increase the battery life of the mobile devices.
(22) DSP Enhanced FPGA
Rapid advances in silicon technology and high demand of multimedia applications on wireless networks have spurred the research and development of computationally intensive signal processing and communication systems on FPGAs and Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs).
These advancements also offer mystical solutions to historically intractable signal processing problems resulting in major new market opportunities and trends. Traditionally for signal processing specific applications off the shelf Digital Signal Processors (DSPs) are used.
Exploiting parallelism in algorithms and mapping them on VLIW processors are tedious and do not always give optimal solution. There are applications where even multiple of these DSPs cannot handle the computational needs of the applications.
Recent advances in speed, density, features and low cost have made FPGA processors offer a very attractive choice for mapping high-rate signal processing and communication systems, specially when the processing requirements are beyond the capabilities of off the shelf DSPs.
In many designs a combination of DSP and FPGA are used. The more structured and arithmetic demanding parts of the application are mapped on the FPGA and less structured parts of the algorithms are mapped on off the shelf DSPs.
This seminar presents the basic structure of FPGAs and the different features of DSP Enhanced FPGAs
(23) Low Power Wireless Sensor Network
Wireless distributed microsensor systems will enable fault tolerant monitoring and control of a variety of applications. Due to the large number of microsensor nodes that may be deployed and the long required system lifetimes, replacing the battery is not an option.
Sensor systems must utilize the minimalpossible energy while operating over a wide range of operating scenarios. This paper presents an overview of the key technologies required for low-energy distributed microsensors.
These include
·power aware computation/communication component technology
· low-energy signaling and networking
· system partitioning considering computation
· communication trade-offs
(24) FinFET Technology
The introduction of FinFET Technology has opened new chapters in Nano-technology. Simulations show that FinFET structure should be scalable down to 10 nm. Formation of ultra thin fin enables suppressed short channel effects.
It is an attractive successor to the single gate MOSFET by virtue of its superior electrostatic properties and comparative ease of manufacturability.
Since the fabrication of MOSFET, the minimum channel length has been shrinking continuously. The motivation behind this decrease has been an increasing interest in high speed devices and in very large scale integrated circuits.
The sustained scaling of conventional bulk device requires innovations to circumvent the barriers of fundamental physics constraining the conventional MOSFET device structure. The limits most often cited are control of the density and location of dopants providing high I on /I off ratio and finite subthreshold slope and quantum-mechanical tunneling of carriers through thin gate from drain to source and from drain to body.
The channel depletion width must scale with the channel length to contain the off-state leakage I off. This leads to high doping concentration, which degrade the carrier mobility and causes junction edge leakage due to tunneling. Furthermore, the dopant profile control, in terms of depth and steepness, becomes much more difficult.
The gate oxide thickness tox must also scale with the channel length to maintain gate control, proper threshold voltage VT and performance. The thinning of the gate dielectric results in gate tunneling leakage, degrading the circuit performance, power and noise margin.
(25) Zigbee - zapping away wired worries
In recent years there has been rapid development in the wireless sector due to demand for wire free connectivity. Most of the development was focused on high data rate applications like file transfer etc with new standards like Bluetooth emerging.
During this time applications that required lower data rates but had some other special requirements were neglected in the sense that no open standard was available.
Either these applications we abandoned in the wireless arena or implemented using proprietary standards hurting the interoperability of the system.
ZigBee is a wireless standard that caters to this particular sector. Potential applications of ZigBee include Home Automation, Wireless Sensor Networks, Patient monitors etc. The key features of these applications and hence aims of ZigBee are
1. Low Cost
2. Low Power for increased battery life
3. Low Range
4. Low Complexity
5. Low Data Rates
6. Co-Existence with other long range Wireless Networks
The ZigBee standard is maintained by ZigBee Alliance is a spin off of the HomeRF group, an unsuccessful home automation related consortium.
It is built upon the IEEE 802.15.4 protocol which is intended for LR-WPAN (Low Rate - Wireless Personal Area Network).
In this seminar a general overview of ZigBee is followed by an analysis of how ZigBee and underlying 802.15.4 provide the aims mentioned. Also a brief comparisons with other solutions will be done.
(26) Radiation Hardened Chips
Space is a hostile environment. No atmosphere, extreme variations in temperature and almost no energy sources, where even the slightest of mistakes can lead to a disaster. The vast emptiness of space is filled with radiation, mostly from the sun.
A normal computer unless given proper shielding will not be able to work properly. Thus special types of chips- rad hard chips are used. Radiation hardened chips are made by two methods: -
Radiation hardening by process (RHBP)
Radiation hardening by design (RHBD)
The latter method is much more cost effective and has a great potential for the future. . It has been demonstrated that RHBD techniques can provide immunity from total-dose and single-event effects in commercially produced circuits.
Commercially produced RHBD memories, microprocessors, and application-specific integrated circuits are now being used in defense&space industry.
Rad hard chips have a great scope in military application and protecting critical data (both industrial &domestic) from the vagaries of man and nature.
Current trends throughout military and space sectors favor the insertion of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) technologies for satellite applications.
However, there are also unique concerns for assuring reliable performance in the presence of ionizing particle environments which present concerns in all orbits of interest. This seminar will detail these concerns from two important perspectives including premature device failure from total ionizing dose and also single particle effects which can cause both permanent failure and soft errors.
(27) Terahertz Transistor
MOS transistor is the building block of integrated circuits, and is the engine that powers them. Today’s most complex ICs, such as microprocessors, graphics, and DSP chips, pack more than 100 million MOS transistors on a single chip. Integration of one billion transistors into a single chip will become a reality before 2010.
The semiconductor industry faces an environment that includes increasing chip complexity, continued cost pressures, increasing environmental regulations, and growing concern about energy consumption. New materials and technologies are needed to support the continuation of Moore's law.
Moore's Law was first postulated in 1965 and it has driven the research, development, and investments in the semiconductor industry for more than three decades. The observation that the number of transistors per integrated circuit doubles every eighteen to twenty four months is well known to industry analysts and many of the general public.
However, what is sometimes overlooked is that fact that Moore's law is an economic paradigm: that is, the cost of a transistor on an integrated circuit needs to be reduced by one half every two years.
This type of cost reduction cannot be sustained for an extended period by straightforward continuous improvement of existing technologies.
The semiconductor industry will face a number of challenges during this decade where new materials and new technologies will need to be introduced to support the continuation of Moore's Law.
(28) Silicon Photonics
Silicon photonics can be defined as the utilization of silicon-based materials for the generation (electrical-to-optical conversion), guidance, control, and detection (optical-to-electrical conversion) of light to communicate information over distance.
The most advanced extension of this concept is to have a comprehensive set of optical and electronic functions available to the designer as monolithically integrated building blocks upon a single silicon substrate.
Within the range of fibre optic telecommunication wavelength (1.3 µm to 1.6 µm), silicon is nearly transparent and generally does not interact with the light, making it an exceptional medium for guiding optical data streams between active components.
But no practical modification to silicon has yet been conceived which gives efficient generation of light. Thus it required the light source as an external component which was a drawback.
There are two parallel approaches being pursued for achieving opto-electronic integration in silicon. The first is to look for specific cases where close integration of an optical component and an electronic circuit can improve overall system performance.
One such case would be to integrate a SiGe photodetector with a Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) transimpedance amplifier. The second is to achieve a high level of photonic integration with the goal of maximizing the level of optical functionality and optical performance.
This is possible by increasing light emitting efficiency if silicon. The paper basically deals with this aspect.
(29) Fluid Focus Lens
The camera phone is one of the hottest-selling items in all of consumer electronics. The little gadgets have become so ubiquitous that hardly anyone finds it odd anymore to see tourists squinting with one eye while pointing their cell phones at a Buddhist temple, a Greek statue, or a New York City skyscraper.
It's easy to see why analysts expect that camera phones will outsell conventional digital cameras and traditional film cameras combined.
But as anyone who has ever seen them can attest, the images that come out of camera phones leave plenty to be desired. Part of the problem is their CMOS imaging chips, which typically have a sensor array of only about one mega pixel—a half or less of the number in a low-end digital camera.
When they are, however, the only thing we may see more clearly is the other weakness of these cameras: their tiny, fixed-focus lenses, which have poor light-gathering and resolving power.
Here is a solution. It's modeled on the human eye, with its remarkable optical capabilities. It is called the FluidFocus lens. Like the lens of the eye, this lens, which we built at Philips Research Laboratories, in Eindhoven, the Netherlands, varies its focus by changing shape rather than by changing the relative positions of multiple lenses, as high-quality camera lenses do.
The tests of a prototype FluidFocus lens showed that it can be made nearly as small as a fixed-focus lens. Fixed-focus lenses use a small aperture and short focal length to keep most things in focus, but at the sacrifice of light-gathering power and therefore of picture quality.
At the same time, the prototype lens delivered sharpness that is easily on a par with that of variable-focus lenses. In fact, the optical quality of a liquid lens combined with a good imaging chip could soon give cell phone snapshots quality that rivals images from conventional- and much bulkier- digital cameras.
(30) Subversion
Engineering revision control developed from formalized processes based on tracking revisions of early blueprints or bluelines. Implicit in this control was the option to be able to return to any earlier state of the design, for cases in which an engineering dead-end was reached in iterating any particular engineering design.
Likewise, in computer software engineering, revision control is any practice which tracks and provides controls over changes to source code. Software developers sometimes use revision control software to maintain documentation and configuration files as well as source code.
In theory, revision control can be applied to any type of information record. In practice, however, the more sophisticated techniques and tools for revision control have rarely been used outside software development circles (though they could actually be of benefit in many other areas).
However, they are beginning to be used for the electronic tracking of changes to CAD files, supplanting the "manual" electronic implementation of traditional revision control.
As software is developed and deployed, it is extremely common for multiple versions of the same software to be deployed in different sites, and for the software's developers to be working privately on updates. Bugs and other issues with software are often only present in certain versions (because of the fixing of some problems and the introduction of others as the program evolves).
Therefore, for the purposes of locating and fixing bugs, it is vitally important for the debugger to be able to retrieve and run different versions of the software to determine in which version(s) the problem occurs.
It may also be necessary to develop two versions of the software concurrently (for instance, where one version has bugs fixed, but no new features, while the other version is where new features are worked on).
At the simplest level, developers can simply retain multiple copies of the different versions of the program, and number them appropriately. This simple approach has been used on many large software projects.
Whilst this method can work, it is inefficient (as many near-identical copies of the program will be kept around), requires a lot of self-discipline on the part of developers, and often leads to mistakes.
Consequently, systems to automate some or all of the revision control process have been developed.
(31) Embedded DRAM
This paper examines some aspects of the architecture of embedded DRAM (dynamic random access memory), its applications and its advantages over other conventional memory types.
Embedded DRAM (eDRAM) – the concept of merging DRAM with logic on a single device – has become increasingly popular, thanks to the growth of existing and emerging high bandwidth applications such as graphics processing, backbone and access router data communications systems and base stations for mobile phones.
A common requirement of all these designs is that they have to process very large amounts of data at very high speeds. Because of this, a fundamental design requirement is the ability to provide high performance, high speed memory access.
One way of achieving this is to use system-on-chip (SoC) solutions that incorporate embedded DRAM, allowing wide on chip buses to connect logic to DRAM on the same die, rather than to external memory.
Furthermore, integration of DRAM directly into an LSI device has the added benefits of minimising system power consumption, saving board space, reducing component count and, thanks to the elimination of external buses, reducing the effects of EMI.
eDRAM is used in areas that require high memory bandwidth like in graphics accelerators and media-oriented vector processors like the Vector IRAM (VIRAM)..
(32) Terahertz Waves And Applications
Imaging technology has a rich history that began thousands of years ago. The reflection from a pool of still water or a shiny metal surface was arguably the first imaging method routinely used by mankind. With the advent of lenses, many other novel forms of optical imaging emerged, including telescopes and microscopes.
Using a lens, a pinhole camera, and a sensitized pewter plate, Niépce was the first person to permanently record an image. Optical photography and other forms of optical imaging have since become commonplace.
Of course, imaging has not been constrained to optical frequencies. In 1895 Roentgen discovered X-rays. As with X-rays, whenever a portion of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum became practically usable, it wasn’t long before it was adapted to an imaging configuration.
Therefore, it is not surprising that many types of imaging systems exist today and utilize the radio, microwave, infrared (IR), visible, ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma ray portions of the EM spectrum.
Pressure waves have also been adapted to imaging and are manifest in the various forms of ultrasonic and sonographic imaging systems.
Terahertz (THz) radiation (0.1 THz to 10 THz, 1 THz = 1012 Hz) lies between the infrared (night vision cameras) and microwave (operating range of mobile phones) region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
What makes these waves so fascinating to scientists is their ability to penetrate materials that are usually opaque to both visible and infrared radiation. For example, terahertz waves can pass through fog, fabrics, plastic, wood, ceramics and even a few centimeters of brick - although a metal object or a thin layer of water can block them.
The way in which terahertz waves interact with living matter has potential for highlighting the early signs of tooth decay and skin or breast cancer, or understanding cell dynamics.
(33) Power over Ethernet (PoE)
Power over Ethernet (PoE) is a revolutionary technology that extends the already ultra-broad functionality of Ethernet by supplying reliable DC power over the same twisted-pair cable that currently carries Ethernet data.
PoE, modeled after the technology used by the telecommunications industry to supply reliable power to telephones, enables lifeline quality power for IP telephones (VoIP) as well as many other low power Ethernet network devices like wireless access points (WAP) and security cameras.
When locating access points, system designers often use the availability of AC (alternating current) electrical outlets to base decisions on where to install access points. In some cases, companies only locate access points near AC outlets and within reach of a typical six foot electrical cord.
Or, they'll look for a convenient location to install new outlets at points where it's suitable to run conduit and mount outlet boxes. All of these situations limit the location of access points and can incur significant costs if new outlets must be installed.
Power-over-Ethernet (PoE) solves these problems. A PoE solution only requires technicians to run one Ethernet cable to the access point for supplying both power and data.
With PoE, power-sourcing equipment detects the presence of an appropriate "powered device" (e.g., an access point or Ethernet hub) and injects applicable current into the data cable.
An access point can operate solely from the power it receives through the data cable.
(34) Tele-Graffiti
Tele-graffiti is a technology that allows two or more users to communicate remotely via hand-drawn sketches. What one person writes at one site is captured by a video camera, transmitted to the other site and displayed there using an LCD projector.
The system was developed at Robotics Institute of Carnegie Mellon university, Pittsburg. The system comprises of a digital camera, a high resolution LCD projector to project the received image, a mirror to reflect the projected image onto the paper, fixture to hold these devices in position and a writing pad to fix the sheet of paper on the top of the table at every station.
The user can write on a regular piece of paper with a pen at his desk. The sketch or writing on the paper is captured by the camera and transmits the digitized image to the receiving end through a data link.
The image can be transmitted over the internet or local area network. The software architecture of system runs on Linux and has four threads the drawing thread, the paper tracking thread, sending thread and receiving thread.
Tele-graffiti has various applications. It can play an important role in remote education and remote designing.
It can also serve as a substitute for internet chat. The advantage of the system is that non-computer people can use it. .
(35) Surge Protection In Modern Devices
Voltage surges are unpredictable, momentary increases in voltage. Typically, lightning, inductive switching, or power switching cause surges, which can damage the insulation in building wiring, electrical appliances, or electronic equipment.
Power surges, which can create havoc with today's highly sensitive electrical and electronic equipment, are an unavoidable fact of life. Power surges, both voltage and current, are occurring continually in today’s power systems.
Whether they occur naturally, such as from lightning and static electricity; or are man made, such as inductive surges from motor, transformers, solenoids, etc. power surges are a fact of life. These power surges have a very high voltage and current level as compared to electrical noise.
Recent developments in electronic designs have tended toward smaller and higher density packaging of circuitry. This results in a greater susceptibility to surges. Once attacked by a surge, electronic circuits can be destroyed in as short as 0.1 psec. Electrical power is a driving force behind today's economy.
As such, electricity is used to power engines, machinery, computers, and to light millions of homes, offices and buildings. Unfortunately, the electrical genie is not something that is always neatly bottled or controlled.
As a result, electrical outages, brownouts, transient voltages and power surges have become commonplace. Although many electrical problems have their root in external causes such as lightning, utility grid switching, or line slapping (to name a few), most are caused by factors inside our homes and offices.
In reality, as much as 80% of today's electrical problems can be traced to the activities of such harmless devices as elevators, air conditioners, vending machines, copiers, and large computers.
In fact, even something as simple as turning lights on and off will cause surges of power and transient voltages. .
(36) Adhoc Networks
Adhoc networks find there application in the field of military tactical communications and various other emergency situations. Before we can efficiently use this type of network it is essential for us to understand the various control problems associated with adhoc networks.
These include the power control problem. This problem infringes itself into the various layers of the OSI reference model. It basically affects the networking by affecting the battery life of the system. So the necessary solution is investigated over here, this solution being the COMPOW protocol. The second problem which we deal with is the Medium Access Control problem (MAC). The wireless medium is a shared medium hence the problem of ‘who get the medium’ is a big question. The basic protocol which helps us get over this control problem is the IEEE 802.11. Adhoc networks will be the future of the instrumentation and control systems hence its efficient working is very important..
(37) Biochips
Biochips analyses biological materials to diagnose disease, aid in drug discovery and deliver medicine inside the human body to provide the basis for major research and commercial breakthroughs.
In the near future, patients will go to a doctor’s clinic with lab on chip devices. The device will inform the doctor in real time if the patient’s ailment will respond to a drug based on his DNA.
The chip will also confirm the patient’s identity, diagnose disease and even establish paternity. Human body is a wonderful machine. Using biochips, at the first sign of a physical defect or deformity, people will “shop” around for a better and stronger organically grown heart, brain or kidney as the case may be. With biochips, mankind will be able to prolong its life, maybe forever making human beings into eternal beings..
(38) BLUE EYES
We communicate with others using visual, audio and sensory information (touch, smell, etc.). This is possible only because the human brain is highly skilled in integrating and interpreting such data.
What if a computer can do the same? If computers can understand what we feel and act accordingly, the possibilities are endless!!! Blue Eyes technology being developed by the IBM research center at Alma den to make such "Smart" Computers.
In this paper, basic concepts of Blue Eyes are discussed. The motivation and the benefits of Blue Eyes are also mentioned in this context. The concepts and design of the software's included in Blue Eyes are also carried out in detail.
At IBM's lab, researchers are talking the lofty goal of designing 'Blue Eyes', its aim being to create devices with embedded technology that gathers your personal information. They'll track your pulse, breathing rate, and eye movements, and then react to those physical triggers by performing tracks for you. Following your movements of your eyes, the "gaze-tracking" technology uses MAGIC to control your mouse. With MAGIC, the cursor follows your eyes as you look around the screen.
When your eye stops on an object, you click the mouse to select it. Also current versions of gaze tracking technology only come within an inch or so of its target..
(39)Carbon Nano Tubes
The carbon nanotubes form a promising tool in the emerging fields of nanotechnology and its reassuring development. The importance lies in the fact that the whole development has been from carbon which forms the basic unit. The future lies in continuous improvement in the required properties of materials by artificially structuring them on nanometer scale and developing processing methods for their manufacture. Thus this topic presents a smooth and effective blending of electronics and chemistry. The day is not far when we could make supercomputers no larger than a human cell or a spacecraft no more expensive than a family car.
The drive towards miniaturization and sophistication of electrical devices has been progressing at a relentless pace. Silicon-based microelectronic devices have played an integral role in steering this revolution during the latter part of the last century. Gordon Moore’s observation in 1965 of doubled computing capacity in every new silicon chip produced within 18-24 months of the previous one is testimony to the ascendancy of silicon devices in the microelectronics race. Nanotechnology relates to the creation of devices, structures and systems whose size ranges from 1 to 100 nanometers (nm). These creations also exhibit novel physical, chemical or biological properties because of their nano scale size. To place their size in context, 1 nm is 10,000 times smaller than the thickness of one strand of human hair..
(40) Convergence Of Microcontrollers And DSPs
The two divergent paths of Microcontroller and DSP may cross occasionally with each performing both tasks. Barriers to entry depend on peripherals, filling the data pipe, and quality of development tools. Designers of today's emerging systems that require both real-time control as well as analog signal processing are looking for ways to reduce cost and speed development time in a market that becoming increasingly competitive.
Both technical and personal considerations rule. For a microcontroller engineer to consider a DSP or for a DSP engineer to use a microcontroller three strict criteria must be met: price/performance, peripheral set, and development tool quality. The absolute convergence of these two architectures are being met by MSPs, which are a joining of the most advanced features of both, as well as the fastest clock rates in the embedded market.
The simplicity of merging the microcontroller and DSP architectures into a single instruction stream seemed the natural step. By implementing parallel execution units, high clock speeds, and glueless interfaces for common memories, deterministic real-time signal processing performance for DSP can exist simultaneously with the multilevel interrupt hierarchy and rapid context switching required for the controller needs of the system.
MSPs also have wide data paths, on-chip cache, and 100MHz+ clock speeds. Development tools for MSPs are more complex than for microcontrollers, but the instruction sets and architectures lend themselves to easier implementations of C compilers compared to a DSP..
(41) CRUSOE PROCESSOR
This paper deals with the architecture of the new revolutionary processor Crusoe. Crusoe, launched in 2000 by transmeta Inc . Is next generation microprocessor which uses a hardware and software to achieve dynamic reconfiguration and power saving.
We examine the need for such a design, the gains and the details of the processor. Since the Intel x86 ISA (Instruction Set Architecture) is the predominant one in the market we do all this analysis with respect to a typical Pentium II/III.
To design the Crusoe processor chips, the Transmeta engineers did not resort to exotic fabrication processes. Instead they rethought the fundamentals of microprocessor design. Rather than throwing hardware at design problems, they chose an innovative approach that employs a unique combination of hardware and software.
Using software to decompose complex instructions into simple atoms and to schedule and optimize the atoms for parallel execution saves millions of logic transistors and cuts power consumption on the order of 60-70% over conventional approaches while at the same time enabling aggressive code optimizations techniques that are simply not feasible in traditional x86 implementations. Transmeta’s Code Morphing software and fast VLIW hardware, working together..
(42) Digital Light Processing
Electronic projection display technologies for high brightness applications, from the initial Gretag Eidophor, an oil based projection, to solid state technology based LCD systems, are all analog devices having many disadvantages.
All the products of this information age, digital cameras, digital concoders, digital satellite system, DVDs, play source material of unprecented image quality and so does the Internet-the seemingly endless forum of digitized information.
The whole exercise of preserving digital video and graphic data would be pointless if it has to be converted to analog before viewing.
Texas Instruments' Digital Light Processing technology-the only available digital display technology is a revolutionary alternative.
At the heart of the DLP display is the Digital Micromirror device (DMD),a semiconductor based array of fast, reflective digital light switches. Digital electronics and optics converge at DMD.
Based on this DMD, DLP can form the final link to digital visual communication. In the same way the compact disc revolutionized the audio industry, DLP will revolutionize video projection.
This seminar describes the design, operation, performance and advantages of DLP based projection system for high brightness, high resolution application..
(43) Embedded Systems In Automobiles
Most of the microprocessors in the world are not in PCs, they are embedded in devices which control traffic for highways, airspace, railway tracks, and shipping lanes to manufacturing systems with robots.
An embedded system is any device controlled by instructions stored on a chip. These devices are usually controlled by a microprocessor that executes the instructions stored on a Read Only Memory (ROM) chip.
Embedded systems can be used to implement features ranging from the way pacemakers operate and mobile phones that can be worn as jewellery to Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC). In this seminar I will explain one such technology that uses the embedded systems- The Adaptive Cruise Control.
The easy availability of good design tools (many of them in the freeware domain) and a software engineer has been two key factors in fueling the growth of embedded systems. All these applications areas mentioned in the seminar are just tiny drops in the big ocean of embedded systems technology. So wait with bated breath for the fireworks to come. They are sure to blow our mind..
(44)Fault Diagnosis Of Electronic System using AI
In an increasingly competitive marketplace system complexity continues to grow, but time-to-market and lifecycle are reducing. The purpose of fault diagnosis is the isolation of faults on defective systems, a task requiring a high skill set.
This has driven the need for automated diagnostic tools. Over the last two decades, automated diagnosis has been an active research area, but the industrial acceptance of these techniques, particularly in cost-sensitive areas, has not been high.
This paper reviews this research, primarily covering rule-based, model-based, and case-based approaches and applications. Future research directions are finally examined, with a concentration on issues, which may lead to a greater acceptance of automated diagnosis.
Increasing costs, shorter product lifecycles, and rapid changes in technology are driving the need for automated diagnosis. Although research has been active over the last two decades, much remains to be done.
Primarily, the developed techniques must be scaled up to deal with current and future technologies but with improved development times and costs. Otherwise, acceptance will be difficult, particularly in cost sensitive domains, such as PCs and consumer electronics.
To date, there have been some applications, but the general use of intelligent diagnostic solutions for electronic system diagnosis has yet to happen..
(45) Fundamental Limits Of Silicon Technology
The rapid improvement in silicon technology has enables the electronic industry to progress steadily over the past 50 years.
It is this technological stride that make computers to shrink in cost and size .But a question still persists whether the present rate of progress will continue for the next 50 years. The essential ingredient to the progress had been the process of miniaturization.
The road to advances beyond a decade into the future has always been obscure and has stimulated many speculations as to where miniaturization must end. The problems and their solutions rising from the continued miniaturization are examined in the perspective of the fundamental limits imposed by nature.
An understanding of the fundamental limits is important, since we can shape the chips in such a way that in future we get better computational speed and efficiency..
(46) Adaptive Multipath Detection
To achieve a better Eb/N0 (bit energy to noise ratio) than todays Rake receiver, a better estimation of the radio channel is needed. This paper proposes to reach this goal with artificial neural networks, which are used for detecting all multipaths in a direct sequence spread spectrum signal.
The output of the adaptive neual net is an estimation of the channel response. To increase the Eb/N0 of direct sequence spread spectrum signals, Rake receivers consist of up to 6 demodulators, which demodulate the strongest few echoes of the signal. Their output signals are collected. The result is a higher stability against noise.
The presented work is also based on using not only one path for reconstructing the transmitted bit stream but nearly all paths. The received PN (pseudo noise) radio signal is sampled with a rate of about four times the chip rate of the PN signal and passed through a despreader that correlates it with the original PN sequence.
In contrast to a conventional receiver, the correlation is made for every delay, realized in a correlator bank whose output is given to a neural network. As neural net, a perceptron with backpropagation is used, with the task to detect all the multipaths in the correlated signal. With conventional filters the problem of detecting only the multipath peaks and not the peaks due to crosscorrelation of a PN sequence with an inverted PN sequence - occuring whenever a bit change from 1 to -1 or inverse - is nearly impossible to handle. The output of the net is the estimated response of the actual channel. With this information containing the delay and the attenuation of each propagation path, the transmitted bit stream can easily be rebuilt. .
(47) The Vanadium Redox Flow Battery System
The VRB-ESS is a device that is capable of storing energy in multi megawatt ranges for durations that range from hours to days, from any available input source such as Grid, Renewable resources or even from a diesel generator. The stored energy can then be provided back into the Grid or supplied to a load as required & directed. It is uniquely capable of being charged as quickly as it was discharged. This seminar presents the various features & applications of the VRB and discusses its future in the coming years.
The vanadium redox flow battery system has undergone optimization and the manufacture of various components have been streamlined and designed to meet the needs for full scale commercial production. With high energy efficiencies of over 80% and a cycle life of greater than 16,000 cycles, the Vanadium Redox Flow Battery that was pioneered at the University of New South Wales has been shown to be superior to any other battery system currently available.
Commercial installations have already been completed in several parts of the world for a range of stationary applications and full-scale manufacture has begun in Japan.A new 250 kW/2 MWh VRB installation for the USA has been recently installed by Pinnacle. The installation, which is modular and relocatable in design, will be used by PacifiCorp to supply peak power capacity (charging in the off-peak hours) and provide end of line voltage support (supplying up to 250 kVAR of reactive power) in a remote area in southeastern Utah.
The stored energy and voltage support available through this VRB unit will allow PacifiCorp to maintain reliable electric service in the area while deferring the need to build a new substation. Because the unit will be portable, it can be moved to another location as needed in the future. The vanadium redox flow battery system has demonstrated an ability to be applied in various energy storage applications. As the development continues more applications will reveal its full versatility and potential. .
(48) Mesh Radio
Mesh radio is an innovative approach to delivering broadband access to residential and small business customers. Instead of using a central base station to serve all customers with in a radius of a few kilometres, it makes every customer’s equipment capable of providing service to its neighbours. New customers do not need to be able to ‘see’ a central base station-they only need to ‘see’ an existing customer’s antenna.
The mesh radio avoids base stations and allows low power micro wave devices in the nodes. This reduces the startup costs and makes it feasible to offer services in low subscriber densities. The mesh radio allow to deliver high-capacity and high-quality services to customers. Mesh radio is a very new technology and nobody is yet offering large scale services based on it. The system of trial in Cardiff and further trials planned for the US, Spain and Germany, works at 28 gigahertz – in the millimetre waveband.
Later systems will work at 40 gigahertz. Two way data rates of four mega bits per second are said to be possible for upto 600 subscriber per square kilometres compared with cell phones mesh technology may raise fewer concerns over radiation health effects. It operates at higher frequencies than the microwaves used by cell phone networks, allowing the signals to travel high in the air in a tight line-of-sight beam. Power levels will be less than one watt; whereas cell phone masts push out eight watts. There are a number of trials and pilot services being run in Europe and the USA. Commercial services could be available in two or three years..
(49) MILLIPEDE
Millipede” is a new (AFM)-based data storage concept that has a potentially ultrahigh density, terabit capacity, small form factor, and high data rate. Its potential for ultrahigh storage density has been demonstrated by a new thermomechanical local-probe technique to store and read back data in very thin polymer films. With this new technique, 3040-nm-sized bit indentations of similar pitch size have been made by a single cantilever/tip in a thin (50-nm) polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) layer, resulting in a data storage density of 400500 Gb/in.2 High data rates are achieved by parallel operation of large two-dimensional (2D) AFM arrays that have been batch-fabricated by silicon surface-micromachining techniques.
The very large scale integration (VLSI) of micro/nanomechanical devices (cantilevers/tips) on a single chip leads to the largest and densest 2D array of 32 x 32 (1024) AFM cantilevers with integrated write/read storage functionality ever built. Time-multiplexed electronics control the write/read storage cycles for parallel operation of theMillipede array chip. Initial areal densities of 100200 Gb/in.2 have been achieved with the 32 × 32 array chip, which has potential for further improvements. In addition to data storage in polymers or other media, and not excluding magnetics, we envision areas in nanoscale science and technology such as lithography, high-speed/large-scale imaging, molecular and atomic manipulation, and many others in which Millipede may open up new perspectives and opportunities.
(50) Molecular Electronics
The development of molecular electronics, the foundation for nanomedicine, would not have been possible without the availability of advanced computers; however, the availability of advanced computers seems to depend on the development of molecular electronics. Molecular electronics seems to aid in its own growth.
These advances are not limited to computing either. The more scientists learn about nanotechnology, the more they learn about engineering, chemistry, physics, mathematics, etc. In September 2002,researchers at Hewlett-Packard created the highest density electronically addressable memory to date. The 64-bit memory uses molecular switches and has an area of less than one square micron.
The device has a bit density that is more than 10 times that of current silicon memory chips.Extreme optimists have gone on to propose that nanotechnology will bring the end of war, the end of world hunger, the end of disease, and ultimately the end of death. It is hard to discern the difference between science fiction and science fact at the moment. But one thing is sure: molecular electronics is a highly promising new field that will be investigated with vigor for many years to come. .
(51) Packet Cable Network
Packet Cable defines a multimedia system architecture that overlays a high speed cable modem access network, with the goal of enabling, a wide variety of internet Protocol based multimedia services, such as voice over IP, unified messaging, video conferencing and on line gaming.This seminar begins with a brief summary of the developments made in the cable industry during the past years and then puts light on the core capabilities necessary to implement VoIP, online gaming etc. in a scalable fashion. This paper also explains the functional components needed in packet cable architecture and some possible next steps in the evolution of packet cable.
Initially designed to support the time to market business considerations of North American cable operators, the Packet Cable architecture will continue to evolve to meet new business requirements and to accommodate advances resulting from the maturing of IP based technology. As new service requirements are identified, the architecture will also be extended to define additional capabilities to support these services. Packet Cable network is the promise for the future. It can provide cheap, high speed, easily accessible communication route even more efficiently in the coming years..
(52) Personal Area Networks for Keyless Entry
As electronic devices become smaller, lower in power requirements, and less expensive, we have to adorn our bodies with personal information and communication appliances. Such devices include cellular phones personal digital assistants (PDAs) pocket video games and pagers. Currently there is no method for these devices to share data. Networking these devices can reduce functional I/O redundancies and allow new services and conveniences.
The concept of Personal Area Networks (PANs) is presented to demonstrate how electronic devices on and near the human body can exchange digital information by capacitively coupling Pico ampere currents through the body. Scientists at IBM’s Almaden Research Center perfected the Personal Area Network technology that uses the natural electrical conductivity of the human body to transmit electronic data. A low frequency carrier (less than 1 megahertz) is used, so no energy is propagated, minimizing remote eavesdropping and interference by neighbouring Pans. A prototype PAN system allows users to exchange electronic business cards by shaking hands..
(53) Remote Accessible Virtual Instrumentation Control Lab
The rapid progress of internet-based networking technologies enables a remote access to engineering lab-oratory equipment and instruments. Since control engineering education should combine theory with practice, this feature can be especially useful to provide students with an Internet access to various experimental setups located in control laboratories. This paper discusses the various concepts related to development of remote accessible control laboratory with the help of the concept of virtual instrumentation. This also looks in detail to the most used virtual instrument design tool. In this era of fusion of various streams of engineering and ultra large scale miniaturisation, this type of attempts is quite relevant and will continue to prove its relevance in future.
An Internet-based remote access control laboratory concept and implementation was presented in this article. Most of the engineering related problems to the laboratory development have been addressed. The presented concept differs from other approaches in that it can provide to the user more authority in the controller design phase. The user may elect to compile, link, execute the controller remotely and transmit the command signal to the local server.
The server is merely responsible for transferring this command signal to the experimental setup, acquiring the system’s output and transmitting it back to the user. The user is also provided with the option of downloading the compiled code and executing the experiment locally (similar to the other approaches). Issues concerned with network's reliability, dynamic delay factor caused by the Internet's traffic, concurrent user-access, and limited computing power have been addressed.
The developed client/server testbeds can also be used for advanced control studies for systems with time-varying delays. The fusion of virtual instrumentation concepts and networking technologies helps and will continue to help to trigger advancements towards a much more sophisticated remote accessible labs..
(54) RTOS – VXWORKS
Embedded systems are found in all market segments: consumer commercials, PC peripherals, telecommunications, automotive and in the fields of aerospace and nuclear research. It is a very demanding technology where products must meet special requirements such as cost effectiveness, low power, small footprint and a high level of system integration.
The embedded systems mostly work in a real time environment where deadlines should not be missed at any instance. The platform to execute this real time application software is known as a Real Time Operating System (RTOS). RTOS consists of a priority based, preemptive, multitasking scheduler to manage the interrupts. Here the requirements of an OS to be a RTOS are discussed and the facilities available for a widely used RTOS VxWorks are also overlooked. Thus we can say that the basic requirements of an OS to be a RTOS are its fast intertask synchronization and communication capabilities, priority based preemptive interrupt handling capability etc. Also comparing to a general OS RTOS only requires a small footprint. It is a modular OS. .
(55) Software Radio
Software radio is an emerging technology, thought to build flexible radio systems, multiservice, multistandard, multiband, reconfigurable and reprogrammable by software. The flexibility of a software radio system consists in its capability to operate in multiservice environments, without being constrained to particular standard, but able to offer, services of any already standardized systems or future ones on radio frequency band. The presence of the software defining the radio inter face necessarily implies the use of DSPs to replace dedicated hardware to execute, in real-time, the necessary software. Digital communication standard are generally based on different master clock rates. Thus sample rate conversion is required in systems that possess signals of different communication standards..
(56) Satellite Digital Radio
Satellite digital radio is a radio system, which is specially designed for car radios. The operation of the satellite digital radio is that satellite receives the data generated by uplink station, amplify this data and send it back through special spot beam not only to fixed but also to mobile and portable receivers. complementary terrestrial transmitter may be necessary, because in big cities high rise buildings may block the signals from the satellites. In this seminar, an attempt is made to explain the different existing satellite systems, it’s working and key technologies used.
The conversion of analog to digital offers a wealth of benefits not available from AM or FM. The new digital service will offer two channel stereo sound and greatly increased frequency response in audio quality comparable to today’s analog FM.In addition, digital will greatly enhance terrestrial radio robustness, which is the ability to withstand factors such as multipath fading, environmental noise and impulse noise interference from nearby radio broad cast signals and terrain blockage for FM, as well as signal structure like reinforce concrete highway overpasses for AM..
(57) E-Paper Technology
Electronic ink is not intended to diminish or do away with traditional displays. Instead electronic ink will initially co-exist with traditional paper and other display technologies. In the long run, electronic ink may have a multibillion-dollar impact on the publishing industry.
Ultimately electronic ink will permit most any surface to become a display, bringing information out of the confines of traditional devices and into the world around us. Electronic ink is a pioneering invention that combiners all the desired features of a modern electronic display and the sheer convenience and physical versatility of sheet of paper.
E-paper or electronic paper is sometimes called radio paper or smart paper. It is many applications includes making of the next generation paper. Paper would be perfect except for one obvious thing: printed words can’t change. The effort is to create a dynamic high-resolution electronic display that’s thin and flexible enough to become the next generation of paper.
(58) Steganography In Images
The word Steganography literally means ‘covered writing’ as derived from Greek. It encompasses all methods of secret communication that conceal the very existence of the message.
Digital technology gives us new ways to apply Steganographic techniques including one of the most intriguing that of hiding information in the digital images. A popular method is the LSB encoding, so encoding and detection of LSB Steganography is discussed in detail. Steganography goes well beyond simply embedding text in an image.
It also pertains to other media, including voice, text, binary files and communication channels. The importance of techniques that can reliably detect the presence of secret message in images is increasing. Research has been pursued in the study of estimating the initial bias from stego images to improve the sensitivity of the RS detection method to short messages in digital images.
(59) Telemedicine
The increasing awareness about the health and development of advanced telecommunication means and information technology has given rise to telemedicine that allows healthcare when patient and doctor are long distances away from each other. This procedure allows for maximum utilization of limited resources.
The increasing population of the world and lack of sufficient no of doctors and the hospitals are the main impediments in providing basic health care to the majority of world population. It is not always possible, nor cost effective, to have the medical expertise available when where it is needed. This is true for complex and critical solutions requiring a medical specialist, and also for health education and routine meetings.
The increasing health consciousness and development of advanced telecommunication means and information technology has given rise to telemedicine , which allows health care when patient and doctor are long distances away from each other. This procedure allows for maximum utilization of limited resources. A distant emergency department can get immediate assistance from an orthopedic surgeon- a service that is not always easy to provide in remote areas..
(60) Teleportation
Teleportation is the name given by the science fiction writers to the feat of making an object or person disintegrate in one place while the exact replica appears somewhere else. How this is accomplished is usually not explained in detail, but the general idea seems to be that the original object is scanned in such away as to extract all the information from it, then this information is transmitted to the receiving location and used to construct the replica, not necessarily from the actual material of the original, but perhaps from atoms of same kinds, arranged in exactly the same pattern as the original.
A teleportation machine would look like a fax machine, except that it would work on both 3-dimensional objects as well as documents, it would produce an exact copy rather than approximate facsimile, and it would destroy the original in the process of scanning it.
A few science fiction writers consider teleporters that preserve the original, and the plot gets complicated when the original and teleported versions of same person meet; but the more common kind of teleporter destroys the original, functioning as a super transportation device, not as a perfect replicator of souls and bodies..
(61) Integrated Vehicle Health Management Technology
The NASA Integrated Vehicle Health Management (IVHM) Technology Experiment for X-37 was intended to run IVHM software on board the X-37 spacecraft. The X-37 is an unpiloted vehicle designed to orbit the Earth for up to 21days before landing on a runway.
The objectives of the experiment were to demonstrate the benefits of in-flight IVHM to the operation of a Reusable Launch Vehicle, to advance the Technology Readiness Level of this IVHM technology within a flight environment, and to demonstrate that the IVHM software could operate on the Vehicle Management Computer.
The scope of the experiment was to perform real-time fault detection and isolation for X-37's electrical power system and electro-mechanical actuators. The experiment used Livingstone, a software system that performs diagnosis using a qualitative, model-based reasoning approach that searches system-wide interactions to detect and isolate failures.
Two of the challenges we faced were to make this research software more efficient so that it would fit within the limited computational resources that were available to us on the X-37 spacecraft, and to modify it so that it satisfied the X-37's software safety requirements. Although the experiment is currently unfunded, the development effort resulted in major improvements in Livingstone's efficiency and safety. This paper reviews some of the details of the modeling and integration efforts, and some of the lessons that were learned
(62) Integrated Vehicle Health Management Technology
The NASA Integrated Vehicle Health Management (IVHM) Technology Experiment for X-37 was intended to run IVHM software on board the X-37 spacecraft. The X-37 is an unpiloted vehicle designed to orbit the Earth for up to 21days before landing on a runway.
The objectives of the experiment were to demonstrate the benefits of in-flight IVHM to the operation of a Reusable Launch Vehicle, to advance the Technology Readiness Level of this IVHM technology within a flight environment, and to demonstrate that the IVHM software could operate on the Vehicle Management Computer.
The scope of the experiment was to perform real-time fault detection and isolation for X-37's electrical power system and electro-mechanical actuators. The experiment used Livingstone, a software system that performs diagnosis using a qualitative, model-based reasoning approach that searches system-wide interactions to detect and isolate failures.
Two of the challenges we faced were to make this research software more efficient so that it would fit within the limited computational resources that were available to us on the X-37 spacecraft, and to modify it so that it satisfied the X-37's software safety requirements. Although the experiment is currently unfunded, the development effort resulted in major improvements in Livingstone's efficiency and safety. This paper reviews some of the details of the modeling and integration efforts, and some of the lessons that were learned
(63) Vacuum Electronics For 21st Century
Vacuum electronics technology is both old and new. It will continue to be enabling technology for entire classes of high power high frequency amplifiers with the most demanding specification for use in military and commercial systems. The report will give brief introduction on various vacuum electronic amplifiers such as helix TWT, gyro amplifiers, multiple beam-amplifiers, power modules along the basics and the advance in the past few decades with different performance curves.
The advantages and the future of these are mentioned in last pages of the report. Vacuum electronic amplifiers are playing, and will continue to play, a major role in emerging market and the whole world needs. In the decades to come, further physics-based high-fidelity simulation software will offer the capability to solve the design problems involving intricate 3-Dnon-symmetric structures incorporating advanced emitters and materials.
Modern numerical techniques and advanced algorithms will provide the foundation for physics based models to conduct trade-of analysis required to optimize amplifiers for specified design goals. This computer aided design capabilities will be used to exploit the full potential of existing amplifier performance.
Vacuum electronics will continue to produce revolutionary advances, as it has done for decades. but the existing possibilities opened up by new design tools, new approaches, and new electromagnetic structures , can be counted on to yield a continuing stream of revolutionary advances in RF amplification..
(64) Virtual Surgery
Rapid change is under way on sever fronts I medicine and surgery. Advance in computing power have enable continued growth in virtual reality, visualization, and simulation technologies. The ideal learning opportunities afforded by simulated and virtual environments have prompted their exploration as learning modalities for surgical education and training. Ongoing improvements in this technology suggest an important future role for virtual reality and simulation in medicine.
Medical virtual reality has come a long way in the past 10 years as a result of advances in computer imaging, software, hardware and display devices. Commercialisation of VR systems will depend on proving that they are cost effective and can improve the quality of care. One of the current limitations of VR implementation is shortcomings in the realism of the simulations. The main Impediment to realistic simulators is the cost and processing power of available hardware. Another factor hindering the progress and acceptability of VR applications is the need to improve human-computer interfaces, which can involve use of heavy head-mounted displays or bulky VR gloves that impede movement. There is also the problem of time delays in the simulator’s response to the users movements. Conflicts between sensory information can result in stimulator sickness, which includes side effects such as eyestrain, nausea, loss of balance and disorientation. Commercialisation of VR systems must also address certain legal and regulatory issues.
(65) Interactive Voice Response System
Interactive Voice Response System (IVRS) is one of the most important breaks through in the field of telecommunication. IVRS provide a voice response to the customers and guide them to the information they require. The customers can call up any institute such as banks, universities, tourism industry and obtain any information by simply pressing certain button on his telephone as per the guidance of the voice fed into the computer.
IVRS is an electronic device through which information is available related to any topic. IVRS is usually employed to know more about the organizations and can be modified to respond to voice of the customer for better response customer satisfaction. IVRS can be employed in customer services there by improving its flexibility and efficiency.
(66) WIDEBAND – OFDM
Orthogonal frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is multicarrier transmission technique. OFDM is a communication technique that divides the communication channel into a number of equally spaced frequency bands. A sub carriers a portion of the users information in each band. Each sub carriers is orthogonal (Independent of each other) with every other sub carrier. OFDM efficiently squeezes multiple modulated carriers tightly together reducing the required bandwidth.OFDM was invested in 1960’s, only recently it has recognized as an excellent method for bi-directional wireless data communication. It is extremely efficient in mitigating common problems in high-speed communication such as multipath fading and RF noise interference. It can be considered as multiple access technique OFDMA..
(67) Micromechanical System For System-On-Chip Connectivity
Micromechanical systems can be combined with microelectronics, photonics or wireless capabilities new generation of Microsystems can be developed which will offer far reaching efficiency regarding space, accuracy, precision and so forth. Micromechanical systems (MEMS) technology can be used fabricate both application specific devices and the associated micro packaging systems that will allow for the integration of devices or circuits, made with non-compatible technologies, with a System-on-Chip environment.
The MEMS technology can be used for permanent, semi permanent or temporary interconnection of sub modules in a System-on-Chip implementation. The interconnection of devices using MEMS technology is described with the help of a hearing instrument application and related micropackaging. MEMS technology offers wide range application in fields like biomedical, aerodynamics, thermodynamics and telecommunication and so forth. MEMS technology can be used to fabricate both application specific devices and the associated micropackaging system that will allow for the integration of devices or circuits, made with non compatible technologies, with a SoC environment .
(68) Mobile Processor
January of 2000, Transmeta Corporation introduced the Crusoe processors, an x86-compatible family of solutions that combines strong performance with remarkably low power consumption. As might be expected, a new technology for designing and implementing microprocessors underlies the development of these products. As might not be expected, the new technology is fundamentally software-based: the power savings come from replacing large numbers of transistors with software.
The Crusoe processor solutions consist of a hardware engine logically surrounded by a software layer. The engine is a very long instruction word (VLIW) CPU capable of executing up to four operations in each clock cycle. The VLIW’s native instruction set bears no resemblance to the x86 instruction set; it has been designed purely for fast lowpower implementation using conventional CMOS fabrication. The surrounding software layer gives x86 programs the impression that they are running on x86 hardware.
The software layer is called Code Morphing software because it dynamically “morphs” x86 instructions into VLIW instructions. The Code Morphing software includes a number of advanced features to achieve good system-level performance.
Code Morphing support facilities are also built into the underlying CPUs. In other words, the Transmeta designers have judiciously rendered some functions in hardware and some in software, according to the product design goals and constraints. Transmeta’s Code Morphing technology changes the entire approach to designing microprocessors. Finally, decoupling the hardware design from the system and application software that use it frees hardware designers to evolve and eventually replace their designs without perturbing legacy software..
(69) Smart Pixel Arrays
Smart pixels, the integration of photodetector arrays and processing electronics on a single semiconductor chip, have been driven by its capability to perform parallel processing of large pixelated images and in real-time reduce a complex image into a manageable stream of signals that can be brought off-chip. In recent years, optical modulators and emitters have been integrated with photodetectors and on-chip electronics. The potential uses for smart pixels are almost as varied as are the designs. They can be used for image processing, data processing, communications, and that special sub-niche of communications, computer networking. While no immediate commercial use for smart pixels has risen to the forefront, smart pixels systems are utilizing technology developed for a wide variety of other commercial applications. As lasers, video displays, optoelectronics and other related technologies continue to progress, it is inevitable that smart pixels will continue to integrate along with these commercially successful technologies..
(70) RFID Technology
Long checkout lines at the grocery store are one of the biggest complaints about the shopping experience. This is mainly due to the time consuming use of UPC barcodes. These codes act as product fingerprints made of machine-readable parallel bars that store binary data.Created in 1970s to speed up the checkout process, barcodes have certain disadvantages:
It is a read-only technology, which means it cannot send information.
It can easily be forged.
Barcode scanning is time consuming.
To overcome these, the barcodes are being replaced by smart labels, also called radiofrequency identification tags.RFID tags are intelligent barcodes that can literally talk to a networked system to track every product that is bought. The automotive industry also makes use of RFID batteryless transponders that offer a high level of security at low cost. The theft of vehicles with electronic immobilizers decreased to about one-tenth compared to those without immobilizers. This is based on the RFID technology.RFID is a technology that uses radio signals for automatic identification by transmitting data in a machine-readable form using radiofrequency as the carrier medium.
.
(71) Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography
SPECT, the acronym for Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography, is a nuclear medicine imaging modality, giving information about a patient’s specific organ or body system. The patient is injected with a radiopharmaceutical, which will emit Gamma rays. The radio activity is collected by an instrument called gamma camera and the image is reconstructed. SPECT is used to make three dimensional images of the heart, to perform brain studies and for skeletal scintigraphy. It is reasonable to speculate about a constant by perhaps a slower rate of increase of clinical applications of SPECT. It is safe to conclude that SPECT has reached the stage where it will be a valuable and also an unavoidable asset to the medical world. SPECT is used routinely to help diagnose and stage cancer, stroke, liver disease, lungs disease and a host of other physiological (functional) abnormalities..
(72) Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing
The technology of combining a number of optical wavelengths and then transmitting the same through a single fibre is called wavelength division multiplexing (WDM). Conceptually, the technology is similar to that of frequency division multiplexing (FDM) used in analogue transmission. Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) is anew born multiplexing technology in the fibre optic transmission, bringing about a revolution in the bit rate carrying capacity over a single fibre.
The emergent of DWDM system is one of the important phenomena in development of optic fibre transmission. This article gives introduction of DWDM technology. The demand of bandwidth is increasing day by day, especially for data traffic. Service providers are required to provide the bandwidth dynamically and in shortest possible time. This can only be done by DWDM. In future advanced DWDM components will be available. Thus, it will be possible to manage the optical signal dynamically, which will allow more flexibility to the service providers..
(73) Vertical Cavity surface Emission Lasers
Vertical Cavity surface Emission Lasers (VCSEL) are lasers that emit light from their surface in contrast with regular ‘edge emitters’. Also they have got a vertical cavity , as the name suggests, which enables surface emission.â€Vixels†, as they are commonly called ,have several superior characteristics compared to their edge emitting counter parts.
VCSEL – Semiconductor micro laser diodes which emit light perpendicular to their PN junction in a cylindrical beam vertically from the surface of a fabricated wafer and feature circular low divergence beam
Earliest reported in 1965 by Melngailis VCSEL was first demonstrated in 1979 at Tokyo Institute of Technology Epitaxial mirrors for GaAs/ AlGaAs VCSELs pioneered in 1983
Distributed Bragg Reflection If layers of alternating semiconductors are stacked periodically , each layer having a thickness λo n , the reflections from each of the boundaries will be added in phase to produce a large reflectivity Brag reflection condition Periodicity of cladding layer is chosen so that n1d1 + n2d2 = λo/2 n1 , n2 refractive indices d1 , d2 thickness of layer λo free space wavelength of the optical beam Epitaxial growth of VCSEL There are two methods 1 . Molecular beam epitaxy ( MBE ) 2 . Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE)
(74) Inverse Multiplexing over ATM
Local Area Networks are now being used to transport voice and video traffic together with traditional data traffic that they have already supported. And in the case of voice and video applications, not only is these is a need for more bandwidth, but there is also a need for guaranteed levels of receive because these applications are very sensitive to latency and delay. Inverse multiplexing can be proved as technology that overcomes the bandwidth gap that exists between LAN and WAN. Inverse multiplexing is exactly the opposite of traditional multiplexing. In traditional multiplexing, multiple streams of data are combined into one single but larger data pipe, where as inverse multiplexing combines multiple circuits into single logical data pipe.
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) has compelling business as a WAN technology and is on a steep growth curve both in public carrier networks and in private organisations with requirements for networking video, voice and data traffic. Inverse multiplexing over ATM (IMA) is a breakthrough standard that enables ‘right sizing and right pricing of enterprise access solutions for organisations with low to mid range WAN traffic requirements and offers the benefits of ATM’s quality of service and statistical bandwidth optimisation capabilities. IMA divides an aggregate stream ATM cells across multiple WAN links on a cell by cell basis and hence the name inverse-multiplexing. In combination with ATM, IMA simplifies and reduces WAN cost of ownership.
(75). Earth Simulator
Earth simulator is the fastest supercomputer in the world. Nec had first built this japanese machine. Earth simulator uses parallel vector architecture to achieve a peak performance of 40 f flops. This system configured in 640 nodes of 8 vector processors each connected together by crossbar switch. Each node has a shared memory of 16 gb (total 10 tb).
This japanese machine was built to analyze climate change, including global warming, as well as weather and earthquake patterns. Earth simulator has the power to create a “virtual planet earth” using its large processing capability. The vector processor used in this is fabricated in a single chip with 0.15-micron cmos technology. You cannot wait for results in weather predictions. “we actually can predict the weather very accurately; the problem is it takes a week of computation to predict tomorrow’s weather”. This delay may cause considerable damage to human lives and economy. He earth simulator will answer the above problem. Using its high computational power it can predict weather fast and accurately. Within five years, scientists expect earth simulator’s advanced modeling and simulation capabilities to bear fruit. Thanks to the new supercomputer, scientists expect to find powerful new ways to deal with anomalous events such as e1 nino, global warming, and long-term changes in the earth’s crust and interior. According to jackdongorra “in some sense we have a computer on our hands”, referring to the time when the u.s. Was surprised by sputnik, the world’s first satellite.
parallel vector architecture opens up a new way to develop future supercomputers. This technology has the advantages of both parallel and vector processing. We can connect a large number of vector modules to achieve more performance..
(76) Automated Eye-Pattern Recognition Systems
Privacy of personal data is an illusion in today’s complex society. With only passwords, or Social Security Numbers as identity or security measures every one is vulnerable to invasion of privacy or break of security. Traditional means of identification are easily compromise and enyone can use this information to assume another’s identity. Sensitive personal and corporate information can be assessed and even criminal activities can be performed using another name. Eye pattern recognition system provides a barrier to and virtually eliminates fraudulent authentication and identity privacy and safety controls privileged access or authorised entry to sensitive sites, data or material. In addition to privacy protection there are myriad of applications were iris recognition technology can provide protection and security. This technology offers the potential to unlock major business opportunities by providing high confidence customer validation. Unlike other measurable human features in the face, hand, voice or finger print, the patterns in the iris do not change overtime and research show the matching accuracy of iris recognition systems is greater than that of DNA testing. Positive identifications can be made through glasses, contact lenses and most sunglasses.
Automated recognition of people by the pattern of their eyes offers major advantages over conventional identification techniques. Iris recognition system also require very little co-operation from the subject, operate at a comfortable distance and are virtually impossible to deceive. Iris recognition combines research in computer vision, pattern recognition and the man-machine interface. The purpose is real-time, high confidence recognition of a persons identity by mathematical analysis of the random patterns that are visible with in the iris. Since the iris is a protected internal organ whose random texture is stable throughout life, it can serve as a ‘living password’ that one need not remember but one always carries. .
(77) xMax
xMax developed by xG Technology is a wireless communications technology whose developers claim is low power and provides a high data rate over a distance of about 13 miles. A fundamental paradigm shift in the way radio signals are modulated and demodulated.Developed by xG Technology in Florida Rather than transmitting many RF cycles for each bit of data to be sent, xMax does it in a single RF cycle. Power is saved not only in the transmission, but because receivers will only recognize single-cycle waveforms, power isn't wasted on un-intended RF signals .
(78)smart dust
Smart dust is tiny electronic devices designed to capture mountains of information about their surroundings while literally floating on air. Nowadays, sensors, computers and communicators are shrinking down to ridiculously small sizes. If all of these are packed into a single tiny device, it can open up new dimensions in the field of communications.The idea behind 'smart dust' is to pack sophisticated sensors, tiny computers and wireless communicators in to a cubic-millimeter mote to form the basis of integrated, massively distributed sensor networks.
They will be light enough to remain suspended in air for hours. As the motes drift on wind, they can monitor the environment for light, sound, temperature, chemical composition and a wide range of other information, and beam that data back to the base station, miles away.Smart Dust requires both evolutionary and revolutionary advances in miniaturization, integration, and energy management. Designers can use microelectromechanical systems to build small sensors, optical communication components, and power supplies, whereas microelectronics provides increasing functionality in smaller areas, with lower energy consumption. The power system consists of a thick-film battery, a solar cell with a charge-integrating capacitor for periods of darkness, or both. Depending on its objective, the design integrates various sensors, including light, temperature, vibration, magnetic field, acoustic, and wind shear, onto the mote. An integrated circuit provides sensor-signal processing, communication, control, data storage, and energy management. A photodiode allows optical data reception. There are presently two transmission schemes: passive transmission using a corner-cube retro reflector, and active transmission using a laser diode and steerable mirrors.
(79) Remote Monitoring And Thought Inference
This topic deals with what might commonly be called “mind reading”. More specifically and technically it deals with methods by which the thoughts a person is thinking can be inferred by analyzing physiological data obtained about that person from any sort of sensor devices. This inference need not be 100% effective to be a powerful technique for information gathering from, and harassment of a targeted individual. Even a remote heartbeat and breathing monitor, combined with surveillance cameras, would allow for thought inferences that would be extremely unnerving to a targeted person. Combining such capabilities with techniques and technologies would allow for a “full - duplex” sort of mind manipulation..
(80) Heliodisplay
The heliodisplay is an interactive planar display. Though the image it projects appears much like a hologram, its inventors claim that it doesn't use holographic technology, though it does use rear projection (not lasers as originally reported) to project its image. It does not require any screen or substrate other than air to project its image, but it does eject a water-based vapour curtain for the image to be projected upon. The curtain is produced using similar ultrasonic technology as used in foggers and comprises a number of columns of fog.
This curtain is sandwiched between curtains of clean air to create an acceptable screen.Heliodisplay moves through a dozen metal plates and then comes out again. (The exact details of its workings are unknown, pending patent applications.) It works as a kind of floating touch screen, making it possible to manipulate images projected in air with your fingers, and can be connected to a computer using a standard VGA connection. It can also connect with a TV or DVD by a standard RGB video cable. Though due to the turbulent nature of the curtain, not currently suitable as a workstation.The Heliodisplay is an invention by Chad Dyner, who built it as a 5-inch prototype in his apartment before founding IO2 technologies to further develop the product..
(81) Cellonics Technology
For the last 60 years, the way radio receivers are designed and built has undergone amazingly little change. Much of the current approach could be attributed to EH Armstrong, the oft -credited Father of FM, who invented the super heterodyne method in 1918.He further developed it into a complete FM commercial system in 1933 for use in public-radio broadcasting. Today, more than 98% of receivers in radios, television and mobile phones use this method.The subsystem used in the superhet design consists of radio-frequency (RF)amplifiers mixers ,phase-lock loops ,filters, oscillators and other components ,which are all complex ,noisy ,and power hungry. Capturing a communications element from the air to retrieve its modulated signal is not easy ,and a system often needs to spend thousands of carrier cycles to recover just one bit of information .
This process of demodulation is inefficient ,and newly emerging schemes result in complex chips difficult and expensive to manufacture.So it was necessary to invent a new demodulation circuit ,which do the job of conventional superheterodyne receiver but at afar lesser component count, faster and lower in power consumption and possessing greater signal robustness These requirements were met by designing a circuit which models the biological cell behavior as explained earlier. The technology for this, named CELLONICS ,was invented by scientists from CWC(Center for Wireless communication) and Computational Science Department in Singapore. The Cellonics technology is a revolutionary and unconventional approach based on the theory of nonlinear dynamical systems and modeled after biological cell behavior. When used in the field of communication, the technology has the ability to encode, transmit and decode digital information powerfully over a variety of physical channels, be they cables or wirelessly through air
(82) Nanotechnology for Future Electronics
Nanotechnology will help bring in strategically important driving force to future electronics. Intensive R & D on nanotechnology for chip applications is being driven from two distinct directions: 1) to sustain and enhance the great technology momentum established in decades by silicon ICs and 2) to explore revolutionary technologies in the “beyond-silicon” era. Nanotechnology-enabled chip systems offer merits such as energy-efficiency, scalability, surface sensitivity, tunable properties, and low fabrication cost, all in tune with the future demands of electronics.
Bottom-up approach, the core concept of nanotechnology, is the methodology that employs inexpensive chemistry to promote self-assembly of complex mesoscopic architectures. New material behavior at nano-scale offers great opportunities to design systems operating under different mechanisms. The next generation electronic chips, based on self-assembly of functional nanostructures, may helping enhancing chip system performance and density by orders of magnitude, deliver rich functionality, reduce power consumption considerably , and operate at molecular level. Nanotechnology potentially has a significant impact on several major applications such as computing, data storage, communication systems, bio/chemical sensing, energy conversion and lot more...
(83) Animatronics
Animatronics is essentially a cross between animation and electronics. Basically, an animatronic is a mechanized puppet. It can be preprogrammed or remotely controlled. An abbreviated term originally coined by Walt Disney as "Audio-Animatronics" (used to describe his mechanized characters), can actually be seen in various forms as far back as Leonardo-Da-Vinci's Automata Lion, (theoretically built to present lillies to the King of France during one of his Visits),and has now developed as a career which may require combined talent in Mechanical Engineering , Sculpting / Casting, Control Technologies, Electrical / Electronic, Airbrushing, Radio-Control. Long before digital effects appeared, animatronics were making cinematic history.
The scare generated by the Great White coming out of the water in "Jaws" and the tender otherworldliness of "E.T." were its outcomes. The Jurassic Park series combined digital effects with animatronics.It is possible for us to build our own animatronics by making use of ready-made animatronic kits provided by companies such as Mister Computers where no programming skills are required.Only a knowledge of Windows is required. .
(84) Artificial Neural Network Systems
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is a system loosely modeled on human brain. It tries to obtain a performance similar to that of human’s performance while solving problems. As a computational system it is made up of a large number of simple and highly interconnected processing elements which process information by its dynamic state response to external inputs. Computational elements in ANN are non-linear and so the results come out through non-linearity can be more accurate than other methods. These non-linear computational elements will be working in unison to solve specific problems. ANN is configured for specific applications such as data classification or pattern recognition through a learning process. Learning involves adjustment of synaptic connections that exist between neurons. ANN can be simulated within specialized hardware or sophisticated software. ANNs are implemented as software packages in computer or being used to incorporate Artificial Intelligence in control systems..
(85) Synthetic Aperture Radar System
Synthetic Aperture Radar or SAR is an imaging radar system that sends a microwave pulse to the surface of the earth and register the reflections from the earth's surface . On -board processing and compression of data obtained from the SAR is vital for image formation .The development of enabling technologies for space-borne SAR instruments have been a major focus of research and development during the last few years . At present the SAR systems provides only images and in future it will have to deliver dedicated information to each special user..
(86) Project Oxygen
In the future, computation will be human-centered. It will be freely available everywhere, like batteries and power sockets, or oxygen in the air we breathe. It will enter the human world, handling our goals and needs and helping us to do more while doing less. We will not need to carry our own devices around with us. Instead, configurable generic devices, either handheld or embedded in the environment, will bring computation to us, whenever we need it and wherever we might be. As we interact with these "anonymous" devices, they will adopt our information personalities.
They will respect our desires for privacy and security.New systems will boost our productivity. They will help us automate repetitive human tasks, control a wealth of physical devices in the environment, find the information we need (when we need it, without forcing our eyes to examine thousands of search-engine hits), and enable us to work together with other people through space and time. It must be accessible anywhere. It must adapt to change, both in user requirements and in operating conditions. It must never shut down or reboot —components may come and go in response to demand, errors, and upgrades, but Oxygen as a whole must be available all the time..
(87) Radio Frequency Light Sources
After years of research and development, radio frequency light sources are just now becoming a mainstream lighting option. RF light sources follow the same principles of converting electrical power into visible radiation as conventional gas discharge lamps. The fundamental difference between RF lamps is that RF lamps operate without electrodes [anode and cathode].
There are three practical ways to energize RF light sources, though there are more ways to create RF plasmas. These three ways correspond to different types of interaction of electromagnetic fields with the bounded plasma and to different kinds of RF discharges. They are: capacitive, inductive and wave sustained discharges. The most suitable frequency range is 2.2 - 3.0 MHz [2.65MHz is the standard] for RF lighting devices. An RF generator (RF ballast) is the essential yet most expensive part of a modern RF lighting system..
(88) Wavelet Video Processing Technology
The biggest obstacle to the multimedia revolution is digital obesity. This is the blot that occurs when pictures, sound and video are converted from their natural analog form into computer language for manipulation or transmission. In the present explosion of high quality data, the need to compress it with less distortion of data is the need of the hour. Compression lowers the cost of storage and transmission by packing data into a smaller space.
One of the hottest areas of advanced form of compression is wavelet compression. Wavelet Video Processing Technology offers some alluring features, including high compression ratios and eye pleasing enlargements. Wavelet-based coding provides substantial improvement in picture quality at low bit rates because of overlapping bases function and better energy compaction property of wavelet transforms. Because of the inherent multi resolution nature wavelet based codes facilitate progressive transmission of images thereby allowing variable bit rates. The JPEG-2000 standard incorporates wavelet technology. Interesting issues like obtaining accurate models of images, optimal representations of such models and rapidly computing such optimal representation are the grand challenges facing the data compression community.
Interaction of harmonic analysis with data compression, joint source channel coding, image coding based on models of human perception, scalability robustness, error resilience, and complexity are a few of the many outstanding challenges in image coding to be fully resolved and may affect image data compression performance in the years to come..
(89) Webphone
Real time transmission of voice over the Internet also known as Internet Telephony is sure to take a big leap into the modern world of technologies. Web phone lets two users to talk over the Internet for only the cost of connecting to a local server instead of calling over regular phone lines and paying long distance charges.
The benefits of IP Telephony provides sufficient justification to evaluate the technology today to determine how an Internet dial tone can complement traditional PSTN services for the organization. Web phone promises free, feature-rich telephone services. Web phone can yield big cost saving to both corporations and consumers. It is more efficient than the plain old telephone service (POTS) and is poised to undergo huge growth. Before that growth can occur, however, designers who want to use the technology have to vault hurdles concerning latency and quality..
(90) Immersion Lithography
The growth of the semiconductor industry is driven by Moore’s law: “The complexity for minimum component cost has increased at a rate of roughly a factor of two per year”. Notice that Moore observed that not only was the number of components doubling yearly, but was doing so at minimum cost.
One of the main factors driving the improvements in complexity and cost of ICs is improvements in optical lithography and the resulting ability to print ever smaller features.
Recently optical lithography, the backbone of the industry for 45 years has been pushing up against a number of physical barriers that have led to massive investments in development of alternate techniques such as Scalpel, Extreme Ultraviolet and others.
Since the mid eighties, the demise of optical lithography has been predicted as being only a few years away, but each time optical lithography approaches a limit, some new technique pushes out the useful life of the technology.
The recent interest in immersion lithography offers the potential for optical lithography to be given a reprieve to beyond the end of the decade.
No comments:
Post a Comment